BNS 2023 Section 61 Criminal Conspiracy HIGH When two or more people plan together to do something illegal — even if the illegal act never happens — they can all be guilty of criminal conspiracy. For the plan to count as a crime (if the planned … ▾
BNS 2023 Section 111 Organised Crime HIGH Organised crime under BNS is broadly defined as any continuing unlawful activity by a syndicate using force, intimidation, corruption, or other means to gain pecuniary benefit or undue advantage. This… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 303(2) Dishonest Misappropriation of Property MEDIUM Dishonest misappropriation is when someone takes property that doesn't belong to them and uses it as their own — for example, keeping cash belonging to someone else that was accidentally paid to them.… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 308 Extortion MEDIUM Extortion is forcing someone to hand over property by threatening to harm them or someone they care about. In financial contexts, it arises when borrowers are threatened by recovery agents, when perso… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 316 Criminal Breach of Trust HIGH If someone is given responsibility over property (money, assets, securities) that belongs to someone else — such as a director handling company funds, or a borrower handling pledged assets — and then … ▾
BNS 2023 Section 316(5) CBT by Public Servant or Banker HIGH Public servants and professionals in positions of high trust — including bankers, merchants, brokers, and agents — who commit criminal breach of trust face a much harsher punishment of up to 10 years … ▾
BNS 2023 Section 317 Criminal Breach of Trust by Carrier, Wharfinger, etc. MEDIUM A higher punishment applies when the person who commits criminal breach of trust is specifically a carrier, warehouse-keeper, or someone professionally entrusted with custody of goods. The enhanced pe… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 318 Cheating HIGH Cheating is when someone deceives another person to (a) hand over property, (b) let someone keep property, or (c) do or not do something they otherwise wouldn't — and this causes or is likely to cause… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 318(4) Punishment for Cheating HIGH The punishment provisions for cheating under BNS. Basic cheating (without property delivery) carries up to 3 years. When the cheating induces the victim to hand over property, the sentence increases t… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 319 CBT by Clerk or Servant HIGH When an employee (whether a bank clerk, company accountant, or administrative staff) who has been trusted with their employer's money or assets misappropriates or misuses them, the punishment is highe… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 320 Cheating and Dishonestly Inducing Delivery of Property HIGH This is the serious form of cheating — where the deception actually causes the victim to hand over property, or to sign, alter, or destroy a valuable document (like a property deed, cheque, or promiss… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 336 Fraudulent Removal or Concealment of Property to Prevent its Seizure HIGH If a person who owes money deliberately hides, transfers, or moves away their property — specifically to prevent a court or tribunal from seizing it to pay creditors — that is a criminal offence. This… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 337 Fraudulent Execution of Deed of Transfer Containing False Statement MEDIUM This section covers situations where someone fraudulently allows a decree or court order to pass against themselves for money not owed or property not due — typically to divert assets away from the re… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 338 Forgery HIGH Forgery is the creation of a false document or electronic record — with the intention to cause harm, support a false claim, get someone to hand over property, or commit fraud. The actual fraud doesn't… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 340 Forging a Valuable Security, Will, etc. HIGH Forging a cheque, promissory note, demand draft, or any other "valuable security" — that is, a document representing monetary value — or forging a will or power of attorney, carries a much heavier pun… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 341 Making a False Document MEDIUM A document is "false" if it is signed or made in someone else's name without their authority, dated to a time when the signatory was dead, or altered after execution to say something different from wh… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 342 Forgery for Purpose of Cheating HIGH When forgery is specifically carried out with the intent to cheat someone — for example, forging a property document to get a bank loan, or forging a financial statement to induce a creditor to extend… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 344 Using as Genuine a Forged Document or Electronic Record HIGH If you knowingly use a forged document as if it were genuine — for example, submitting a fabricated balance sheet to a bank, or presenting a forged title deed during property registration — you face t… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 345 Falsification of Accounts HIGH An employee or officer who deliberately tampers with, falsifies, or destroys their employer's accounts, records, or valuable documents — to commit or cover up fraud — commits this offence. This covers… ▾
BNS 2023 Section 356(2) Theft MEDIUM Theft in its basic form — dishonestly taking someone's movable property without their consent, with intent to permanently deprive them of it. In financial fraud contexts, theft charges arise when cash… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 35 When Police May Arrest Without Warrant HIGH Police can arrest a person without a magistrate's warrant in certain circumstances — primarily when they have committed a cognisable offence or there is reasonable suspicion they have. For serious off… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 94 Summons to Produce Document or Other Thing HIGH Courts and police can issue written orders requiring any person to produce documents or things that are relevant to a case. This means a bank, a company, or an individual can be compelled to hand over… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 113 Attachment of Property of Person Absconding MEDIUM If a person accused of a crime has fled or is hiding to avoid arrest, the court can order the seizure and attachment of all their property — whether it is a bank account, car, house, or any other asse… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 173 FIR — Information in Cognisable Cases HIGH An FIR (First Information Report) must be registered by police immediately when information about a cognisable offence is given to them — orally or in writing. The Zero FIR concept under BNSS means an… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 175 Investigation HIGH If a person approaches police to file an FIR and police refuse to register it, they can approach a Magistrate who can order the police to investigate. This is a crucial safeguard against police inacti… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 183 Statement to Magistrate (Confessional Statement) MEDIUM A confession or statement made to a Magistrate (not just to police) is admissible in court as evidence. This is a significant provision — unlike police statements (S.193), a Magistrate-recorded statem… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 193 Examination of Witnesses by Police MEDIUM During investigation, police can question anyone who might know something about the case. These statements are recorded but are not admissible in court as evidence (unlike statements under S.183 befor… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 223 Examination of Complainant — Issue of Process HIGH When a complaint (as opposed to an FIR) is filed before a Magistrate, the Magistrate first examines the complainant under oath to decide whether there is enough substance to issue process (i.e., summo… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 230 Framing of Charges HIGH After examining the police report and prosecution material, if the judge/magistrate believes there is sufficient ground to try the accused, they frame a formal written charge. The accused is then aske… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 318 Plea Bargaining HIGH Plea bargaining allows an accused person to plead guilty in exchange for a reduced sentence, avoiding a full trial. The accused approaches the court voluntarily, acknowledges guilt, and the court and … ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 397 Order to Pay Compensation HIGH When a court sentences a criminal and imposes a fine, it can order that part of the fine be paid directly to the victim as compensation — even if the victim would normally have to file a separate civi… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 432 Bail in Cases of Non-Bailable Offence MEDIUM For serious (non-bailable) offences, bail is not automatic — the accused must apply for it and the court decides. If the offence could attract life imprisonment or the death penalty, bail is generally… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 436 Bail in Bailable Offences HIGH For bailable offences, bail is a right — the police or court must release the accused on bail if they are willing to provide a surety. There is no discretion to refuse bail for bailable offences. ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 439 Special Powers of High Court or Court of Session Regarding Bail HIGH The High Court and Sessions Court have special powers to grant, cancel, or modify bail for any accused person. They can also cancel bail that a lower court has already granted. This is the forum for b… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 468 Limitation for Taking Cognizance of Offences HIGH Courts cannot take cognizance (formally accept a case) of minor offences after the limitation period expires. For cheque bounce (NI Act S.138 — punishable up to 2 years), the limitation is 3 years fro… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 479 Maximum Period for Which Undertrial Prisoner Can Be Detained MEDIUM If someone has been in jail awaiting trial for more than half the maximum prison sentence they could receive if convicted, they are entitled to bail (unless the offence carries the death penalty or li… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 482 Anticipatory Bail HIGH Anticipatory bail lets you get a bail order BEFORE you are arrested. If you have reason to believe you may be arrested for a serious crime — such as a banking fraud FIR being registered — you can appl… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 528 Inherent Powers of High Court HIGH The High Court retains unlimited inherent power to prevent injustice — even when the BNSS does not specifically provide for it. This means the High Court can quash an FIR, stay proceedings, or pass an… ▾
BNSS 2023 Section 530 Power of High Court to Transfer Cases MEDIUM The High Court can transfer a criminal case from one court to another — for example, from a court in one city to another — when a fair trial cannot be had, when an important legal question is involved… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 120-B Punishment of Criminal Conspiracy HIGH When two or more people plan together to commit a serious crime, each of them can be punished as if they personally committed it. For less serious conspiracies (carrying under 2 years imprisonment), t… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 383 Extortion MEDIUM Extortion is coercing someone to hand over money or property by threatening to harm them. In debt recovery contexts, it arises when recovery agents use illegal threats to force payments, or when borro… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 405 Criminal Breach of Trust HIGH When you are given responsibility over someone else's property (money, assets, goods) and you dishonestly use it for yourself or dispose of it wrongly, you commit Criminal Breach of Trust (CBT). The k… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 406 Punishment for Criminal Breach of Trust HIGH This is the punishment section for basic Criminal Breach of Trust. If someone entrusted with property dishonestly misappropriates it, they face up to 3 years imprisonment. This applies to ordinary cas… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 408 Criminal Breach of Trust by Clerk or Servant HIGH When an employee who has been trusted with their employer's money or assets misappropriates them, the punishment is higher — up to 7 years — reflecting the breach of confidence placed in an employee. ▾
IPC 1860 Section 409 Criminal Breach of Trust by Public Servant, Banker, etc. HIGH This is the most serious form of CBT — when it is committed by a public servant (including public sector bank officers) or by professionals such as bankers, merchants, or agents who have been trusted … ▾
IPC 1860 Section 415 Cheating HIGH Cheating means deceiving someone to get property or cause harm. It requires: (1) a deception, (2) the deceived person acts on it, and (3) this causes or could cause harm. ▾
IPC 1860 Section 417 Punishment for Cheating MEDIUM The punishment for basic cheating (as defined in S.415) is up to 1 year imprisonment or fine. This is the starting point — if the cheating results in property being handed over (S.420), the punishment… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 418 Cheating with Knowledge that Wrongful Loss Will Ensue MEDIUM A higher form of cheating — when the cheater has a legal duty to protect the victim's interests (like a fiduciary or agent) but cheats them anyway, knowing it will cause loss. This captures situations… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 420 Cheating and Dishonestly Inducing Delivery of Property HIGH The serious form of cheating — where the deception results in property being handed over, or a valuable document being altered or destroyed. Up to 7 years imprisonment. ▾
IPC 1860 Section 421 Dishonest or Fraudulent Removal or Concealment of Property HIGH If you hide or transfer away your property to stop creditors from getting it — especially if you do this knowing you owe money — it is a crime. This covers situations where promoters transfer properti… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 463 Forgery HIGH Creating a false document (on paper or digital) with intent to deceive or cause harm is forgery. This covers forged property deeds, fake financial statements, fabricated loan documents, and altered el… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 465 Punishment for Forgery MEDIUM The basic punishment for forgery (as defined in S.463) is up to 2 years. This increases significantly when the forgery is of a valuable security (S.467: 7 years), for the purpose of cheating (S.468: 7… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 467 Forgery of Valuable Security, Will, etc. HIGH Forging a cheque, demand draft, promissory note, or any other document representing money (valuable security), or forging a will or power of attorney, carries the most severe forgery punishment of up … ▾
IPC 1860 Section 468 Forgery for Purpose of Cheating HIGH When forgery is specifically committed with the intent to cheat someone — for example, forging a property title to get a bank loan — the punishment is 7 years. The fraudulent purpose makes this more s… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 471 Using as Genuine a Forged Document or Electronic Record HIGH If you use a document knowing it's forged — even if you didn't make the forgery — you face the same criminal punishment as the forger. "Using" includes submitting to a bank, producing in court, or pre… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 474 Possession of Forged Document HIGH Simply having a forged document in your possession, knowing it is forged and intending to use it as genuine, is itself a crime — even if you haven't yet used it. For forged valuable securities (cheque… ▾
IPC 1860 Section 477-A Falsification of Accounts HIGH An employee or officer who deliberately tampers with company accounts, financial records, or valuable documents to commit fraud faces up to 7 years imprisonment. This covers bank staff who manipulate … ▾
IPC 1860 Section 489-A Counterfeiting Currency / Bank Notes MEDIUM Creating fake currency or bank notes, or participating in any step of the counterfeiting process, is punishable with life imprisonment. This is one of the most serious offences in the IPC. ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 41 When Police May Arrest Without Warrant HIGH Police can arrest without a warrant when a person commits a cognisable offence in their presence, or when there is reasonable suspicion of a serious offence. The 2009 Amendment added Section 41A which… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 91 Summons to Produce Document or Other Thing HIGH Courts and police can compel any person or institution to produce documents, records, or other evidence relevant to a case. This is used to obtain bank records, company accounts, and property document… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 154 Information in Cognisable Cases (FIR) HIGH An FIR is the written record of information about a cognisable crime given to police. It must be signed by the informant and a copy given to them free of cost immediately. The Supreme Court in Lalita … ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 156(3) Magistrate to Direct Investigation HIGH If police refuse to register an FIR or fail to investigate, an aggrieved person can approach a Magistrate who can direct the police to investigate. This is a crucial safeguard against police inaction. ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 161 Examination of Witnesses by Police MEDIUM Police can question anyone during an investigation who might know about the case. The witness must answer truthfully but can refuse to answer questions that might incriminate them. These statements to… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 173 Report of Police Officer on Completion of Investigation (Charge Sheet) HIGH After completing investigation, police must submit a 'charge sheet' (also called police report or challan) to the Magistrate. If there is enough evidence, the Magistrate takes cognizance and the trial… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 197 Prosecution of Judges and Public Servants MEDIUM Government officials and public servants cannot be prosecuted without prior government sanction. This protection applies only to acts done in the discharge of official duty — not to personal crimes or… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 200 Examination of Complainant HIGH When a complaint (not an FIR) is filed before a Magistrate, the Magistrate examines the complainant under oath before issuing a summons or warrant against the accused. This is the first step in a priv… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 265-A Plea Bargaining (Application) HIGH Plea bargaining allows an accused person to admit guilt and negotiate a reduced sentence, avoiding a full trial. It is only available for offences carrying less than 7 years imprisonment, so cheque bo… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 357 Order to Pay Compensation HIGH When a criminal is convicted and fined, the court can order the fine money to be paid as compensation directly to the victim. This avoids the need to file a separate civil suit to recover damages — pa… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 397 Revision Powers MEDIUM High Courts and Sessions Courts can review the decisions of lower criminal courts to check if they were legally correct. This supervisory power — called revision — allows correction of errors in convi… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 436-A Maximum Period for Which an Undertrial Prisoner Can Be Detained MEDIUM An accused person who has been in jail awaiting trial for more than half the maximum sentence they could receive (if convicted) must be released on bail. For NI Act Section 138 (max 2 years), this bai… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 437 Bail in Non-Bailable Offences HIGH For serious (non-bailable) offences, bail is not automatic. The accused must apply to court and the court considers factors like: whether there is a real risk of death or life imprisonment, risk of fl… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 438 Direction for Grant of Bail to Person Apprehending Arrest HIGH Anticipatory bail is protection applied for before arrest. If you reasonably believe you may be arrested for a non-bailable offence, you can approach the High Court or Sessions Court to get a bail ord… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 439 Special Powers of HC and Sessions Court Regarding Bail HIGH The High Court and Sessions Court have wide powers to grant or cancel bail for any accused. They can override the Magistrate's bail decision — granting bail where the Magistrate refused, or cancelling… ▾
CrPC 1973 Section 482 Saving of Inherent Powers of High Court HIGH The High Court always retains the power to intervene to prevent injustice — even when the CrPC does not specifically provide for it. High Courts use this power to quash FIRs, stay proceedings, or pass… ▾
Constitution Article 1 Name and Territory of the Union MEDIUM India is officially named "India, that is Bharat" and it is a Union of States — not a federation or a confederation. The territories that form India are listed in the First Schedule, and new territori… ▾
Constitution Article 2 Admission or Establishment of New States MEDIUM Parliament can pass a law to admit a new State into India or to create an entirely new State on whatever terms it deems appropriate. This power is exclusive to Parliament — state legislatures have no … ▾
Constitution Article 3 Formation of New States and Alteration of Areas, Boundaries or Names MEDIUM Parliament can redraw India's internal map — it can split states, merge states, increase or decrease their territory, or rename them. However, before such a bill is introduced in Parliament, the Presi… ▾
Constitution Article 5 Citizenship at the Commencement of the Constitution MEDIUM When the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950, persons who were domiciled in India and either born in India, born of Indian-born parents, or resident in India for five years preceding that … ▾
Constitution Article 11 Parliament to Regulate Citizenship by Law MEDIUM Parliament has full power to pass laws on citizenship — including acquisition, renunciation, and termination. The Citizenship Act, 1955 is made under this power and governs all citizenship matters bey… ▾
Constitution Article 12 Definition of "State" for Fundamental Rights HIGH For the purpose of enforcing Fundamental Rights (Articles 13–35), "State" includes not just the Central and State governments, but also any authority that exercises significant governmental functions.… ▾
Constitution Article 13 Laws Inconsistent with Fundamental Rights HIGH Any law — whether passed before or after the Constitution came into force — that violates Fundamental Rights is invalid to the extent of the violation. Courts can strike down provisions of any statute… ▾
Constitution Article 14 Equality Before Law HIGH Every person is equal before the law — the State cannot arbitrarily treat similarly situated people differently. A law that discriminates between people without a reasonable justification is unconstit… ▾
Constitution Article 19(1)(g) Freedom to Practise Any Trade, Profession, or Business MEDIUM Every citizen has the right to carry on any business or profession they choose. However, this right is not absolute — the State can impose reasonable restrictions in the interest of the general public… ▾
Constitution Article 20 Protection in Respect of Conviction for Offences HIGH Article 20 provides three critical protections for accused persons: (i) No retrospective punishment — you cannot be convicted for something that was not a crime when you did it; (ii) Double jeopardy —… ▾
Constitution Article 21 Protection of Life and Personal Liberty HIGH Nobody can be deprived of their life or personal freedom except by a law and following the procedure laid down in that law. Over the years, courts have given "life" a very broad meaning — it includes … ▾
Constitution Article 22 Protection Against Arbitrary Arrest and Detention HIGH When someone is arrested: (1) they must be told why they are being arrested; (2) they have the right to consult a lawyer of their choice; (3) they must be produced before a magistrate within 24 hours.… ▾
Constitution Article 32 Right to Constitutional Remedies (Supreme Court) HIGH Any person whose Fundamental Rights are violated can directly approach the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has the power to issue orders (writs) to enforce these rights. This is itself a Fundamental … ▾
Constitution Article 39-A Equal Justice and Free Legal Aid MEDIUM The government must ensure that the legal system provides equal justice to all, regardless of financial means. Free legal aid must be provided to citizens who cannot afford lawyers. This is a Directiv… ▾
Constitution Article 105 Powers, Privileges and Immunities of Parliament and Members MEDIUM Members of Parliament have absolute immunity for anything they say in Parliament or vote on. Speeches in Parliament, committee reports, and Parliamentary publications cannot be the basis of any legal … ▾
Constitution Article 124 Establishment and Constitution of Supreme Court MEDIUM Article 124 establishes the Supreme Court of India as the apex court. The Supreme Court's decisions are binding on all courts in India. ▾
Constitution Article 136 Special Leave to Appeal by Supreme Court HIGH The Supreme Court can grant leave to hear an appeal from ANY court or tribunal decision in India — including DRT, DRAT, NCLT, NCLAT, and all High Courts. This is the Supreme Court's discretionary powe… ▾
Constitution Article 142 Supreme Court's Power to Do Complete Justice HIGH The Supreme Court has the extraordinary power to pass any order it considers necessary to do complete justice — even if no specific law provides for that order. This power goes beyond the boundaries o… ▾
Constitution Article 226 Power of High Courts to Issue Certain Writs HIGH Every High Court can issue writs (court orders) not just to enforce Fundamental Rights but "for any other purpose" too — meaning to correct legal errors and prevent injustice even where Fundamental Ri… ▾
Constitution Article 227 Power of Superintendence over All Courts HIGH High Courts have supervisory control over all courts and tribunals — including DRTs, DRATs, and NCLTs — within their jurisdiction. This is a supervisory power to ensure that subordinate courts do not … ▾
Constitution Article 246 Subject-Matter of Laws Made by Parliament and State Legislatures HIGH Article 246 divides law-making power between Parliament and State Legislatures. Parliament has exclusive power over List I (Union List) — which includes banking (Entry 45). Both can legislate on List … ▾
Constitution Article 253 Legislation for Giving Effect to International Agreements MEDIUM Parliament can make any law — even one that would otherwise be a State subject — to implement India's international treaty obligations. This is relevant for international financial regulation: FATF (F… ▾
Constitution Article 265 Taxes Not to Be Imposed Except by Authority of Law MEDIUM The government cannot collect any tax unless there is a specific law authorising it. Any tax or levy imposed without a statutory basis is unconstitutional and can be challenged. ▾
Constitution Article 300-A Right to Property HIGH No person's property can be taken away except under a law. This provision was added by the 44th Constitutional Amendment (1978), which removed the right to property from the list of Fundamental Rights… ▾
Constitution Article 372 Continuance in Force of Existing Laws and Their Adaptation MEDIUM All laws that existed before the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950 continue to be valid and in force, unless Parliament or a State Legislature has since amended or repealed them. This is… ▾
Constitution Seventh Schedule, List I, Entry 45 Banking — Parliament's Exclusive Legislative Competence HIGH Banking is an exclusively central subject — only Parliament can make laws governing banking. This is why the RBI Act, the Banking Regulation Act, SARFAESI Act, RDDBFI Act, and the IBC are all Central … ▾
Constitution Article 301 Freedom of Trade, Commerce and Intercourse MEDIUM Trade and commerce across India must be free — no State can erect barriers that hinder the flow of goods, services, or people between States. This makes India a single economic union, not a collection… ▾
Constitution Article 302 Power of Parliament to Impose Restrictions on Trade MEDIUM Parliament — but not State legislatures (except under Article 304) — can restrict inter-State trade if public interest demands it. The restrictions must be genuinely required by public interest, not m… ▾
Constitution Article 304 Restrictions on Trade and Commerce Among States MEDIUM States can tax imported goods at the same rate as locally made goods (no discrimination), and can impose reasonable restrictions on trade within their territory in the public interest — but only with … ▾
Constitution Article 308 Interpretation — Services Under the Union and States MEDIUM For all articles in Part XIV (dealing with public services), "State" has the same wide meaning as in Article 12 — covering Central and State governments and their instrumentalities. Service conditions… ▾
Constitution Article 310 Tenure of Office of Persons Serving the Union or a State MEDIUM All government employees hold their post at the pleasure of the President (for Union employees) or the Governor (for State employees). This means the government can in principle remove them at any tim… ▾
Constitution Article 311 Dismissal, Removal or Reduction in Rank — Natural Justice in Civil Service HIGH A government employee cannot be dismissed, removed, or reduced in rank without: (1) being told the charges against them, and (2) being given a fair opportunity to defend themselves. This is the consti… ▾
Constitution Article 312 All India Services MEDIUM Parliament can create All India Services (like the IAS, IPS, IFS) that serve both the Union and the States, provided the Rajya Sabha passes a two-thirds resolution supporting the creation. Officers of… ▾
Constitution Article 315 Public Service Commissions for Union and States MEDIUM Every State and the Union must have an independent Public Service Commission (UPSC for the Union, SPSC for each State) to conduct recruitment and advise on disciplinary matters for civil services. ▾
Constitution Article 320 Functions of Public Service Commissions MEDIUM The UPSC/SPSC must be consulted before the government takes decisions on civil service recruitment, promotions, and — importantly — disciplinary matters against civil servants. Their consultation is m… ▾
Constitution Article 323-A Administrative Tribunals — CAT Jurisdiction HIGH Parliament can set up Administrative Tribunals (like the Central Administrative Tribunal — CAT) to hear service-related disputes of government employees. Once established, CAT has exclusive jurisdicti… ▾
Constitution Article 323-B Tribunals for Other Matters — DRT, NCLT, NCLAT HIGH Parliament and State Legislatures can set up specialised tribunals to handle specific categories of disputes — including tax matters, foreign exchange, industrial disputes, and others. This is the con… ▾
Constitution Article 324 Superintendence of Elections Vested in Election Commission MEDIUM The Election Commission of India (ECI) has exclusive authority over all elections — to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice President. It is an independent constitutio… ▾
Constitution Article 325 No Discrimination in Electoral Rolls on Grounds of Religion, Race, Caste or Sex MEDIUM There is a single unified voter list for every constituency. No person can be excluded from the voter list or given a separate list based on their religion, race, caste, or gender. ▾
Constitution Article 326 Adult Suffrage — Elections on the Basis of Universal Adult Franchise MEDIUM Every Indian citizen aged 18 or above has the right to vote in elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, unless disqualified on specific grounds (non-residence, mental unsoundness, crime, or el… ▾
Constitution Article 330 Reservation of Seats for SC/ST in the House of the People MEDIUM A certain number of seats in the Lok Sabha are reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, proportional to their share of India's population as per the latest census. ▾
Constitution Article 340 Appointment of a Commission to Investigate Conditions of Backward Classes MEDIUM The President can appoint a commission to investigate the conditions of "other backward classes" (OBCs) and recommend measures for their improvement. The Mandal Commission (1979) was constituted under… ▾
Constitution Article 343 Official Language of the Union MEDIUM Hindi in Devanagari script is the official language of the Union. English was originally allowed for 15 years as a transitional measure — in practice, the Official Languages Act, 1963 continued Englis… ▾
Constitution Article 348 Language of the Supreme Court, High Courts and Legislation MEDIUM All proceedings in the Supreme Court and High Courts must be conducted in English, as must the authoritative texts of all laws and subordinate legislation. A Governor can, with Presidential consent, a… ▾
Constitution Article 350-A Instruction in Mother Tongue at Primary Stage MEDIUM States and local bodies should try to provide primary education in the mother tongue of linguistic minority children. The President can direct States to comply. ▾
Constitution Article 351 Directive for Development of Hindi Language MEDIUM The Union government has a constitutional duty to promote Hindi as a unifying language, drawing vocabulary primarily from Sanskrit while respecting other Indian languages listed in the Eighth Schedule… ▾
Constitution Article 352 Proclamation of National Emergency MEDIUM During a national emergency (war, external aggression, or armed rebellion), the President can suspend normal federal operations. Fundamental Rights under Article 19 are suspended, Parliament can legis… ▾
Constitution Article 356 President's Rule — Failure of Constitutional Machinery in States HIGH If the President is satisfied (based on the Governor's report or otherwise) that a State government cannot function according to the Constitution, the President can impose "President's Rule" — taking … ▾
Constitution Article 360 Financial Emergency MEDIUM If the financial stability or credit of India is threatened, the President can declare a Financial Emergency. During this period, the Central government can direct States on financial management and e… ▾
Constitution Article 361 Protection of President and Governors and Rajpramukhs MEDIUM The President and Governors are immune from criminal prosecution and civil proceedings while in office. No court can arrest or imprison them during their term. Civil suits in their personal capacity c… ▾
Constitution Article 368 Power of Parliament to Amend the Constitution — Basic Structure Doctrine HIGH Parliament can amend the Constitution through a special procedure: a Bill must pass each House with (i) a majority of the total membership of the House AND (ii) a two-thirds majority of those present … ▾
Constitution Article 370 Special Provisions for Jammu and Kashmir (Historical — Abrogated 2019) MEDIUM Article 370 gave Jammu and Kashmir a special autonomous status — the Indian Constitution applied to J&K only in a limited way, with most laws requiring J&K government concurrence. On 5 August 2019, th… ▾
Constitution Article 371 Special Provisions for Various States MEDIUM Articles 371 through 371J grant special constitutional protections to particular States — often protecting tribal customs, religious practices, or regional autonomy. These articles cannot be amended w… ▾
Constitution Article 393 Short Title MEDIUM The official short title of the document is "The Constitution of India." ▾
Constitution Article 394 Commencement MEDIUM Most of the Constitution came into force on 26 January 1950 (Republic Day). A small set of articles dealing with citizenship, elections, and short title came into force immediately upon adoption on 26… ▾
Constitution Article 395 Repeals MEDIUM The Constitution repealed the Government of India Act, 1935 (the British-era constitution of India) and the Indian Independence Act, 1947. These were the predecessor documents that governed India unde… ▾
Constitution First Schedule List of States and Union Territories MEDIUM The First Schedule is simply the official list of India's States and Union Territories. Changes to this list (creation of new States, reorganisation) are done by Parliament under Article 3 — not by co… ▾
Constitution Second Schedule Salaries and Allowances of President, Governors, Judges MEDIUM The Second Schedule sets the salaries and allowances of constitutional office holders — the President, Governors, Parliamentary presiding officers, Supreme Court judges, and the CAG. These are charged… ▾
Constitution Third Schedule Oaths and Affirmations MEDIUM Every constitutional office holder — from Parliament members to Supreme Court judges — must take a specific oath or affirmation before assuming office. The forms of these oaths are prescribed in the T… ▾
Constitution Fourth Schedule Allocation of Seats in the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) MEDIUM The Fourth Schedule assigns how many Rajya Sabha seats each State and UT gets. Larger States get more seats — but the formula is not strictly proportional, giving smaller States relatively more repres… ▾
Constitution Fifth Schedule Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes — Administration HIGH The Fifth Schedule gives Governors the power to shield Scheduled (tribal) Areas from ordinary laws — they can direct that certain Acts do not apply, or apply only in modified form, to protect tribal c… ▾
Constitution Sixth Schedule Tribal Areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram MEDIUM The Sixth Schedule creates Autonomous District Councils in the North-East to govern tribal communities under their own laws. These councils can make laws about money-lending — which may affect how ban… ▾
Constitution Seventh Schedule Division of Legislative Powers — Union List, State List, Concurrent List HIGH The Seventh Schedule determines whether Parliament or the State Legislature has the power to make a particular law. List I (Union List) is Parliament's exclusive domain — banking, RBI, and financial c… ▾
Constitution Eighth Schedule Languages Recognised by the Constitution MEDIUM India has 22 constitutionally recognised languages. These are the languages in which official business, legislation, and court proceedings may be conducted (with specific rules in Arts.343–351 and the… ▾
Constitution Ninth Schedule Acts and Regulations Protected from Judicial Review HIGH The Ninth Schedule is a constitutional "safe harbour" — laws placed in it were originally intended to be immune from Fundamental Rights challenges. It was created to protect land reform laws from chal… ▾
Constitution Tenth Schedule Anti-Defection Law — Disqualification of Members MEDIUM The Tenth Schedule (anti-defection law) punishes elected politicians who switch parties or vote against their party's directions by disqualifying them from the House. This was intended to prevent poli… ▾
Constitution Eleventh Schedule Powers, Authority and Responsibilities of Panchayats MEDIUM After the 73rd Amendment (1992) which gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj, the Eleventh Schedule lists the 29 subjects that States may devolve to Panchayats. It is the roadmap for decentraliz… ▾
Constitution Twelfth Schedule Powers, Authority and Responsibilities of Municipalities MEDIUM After the 74th Amendment (1992) which gave constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies (municipalities, city corporations), the Twelfth Schedule lists the 18 subjects that States may devolve to ULBs f… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 4 Promissory Note MEDIUM A promissory note is a written promise by one person (the maker) to pay a fixed sum of money to another person (the payee) or whoever holds the note. It must be signed, unconditional, and specify a de… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 5 Bill of Exchange MEDIUM A bill of exchange is a written order from one person (the drawer) directing another person (the drawee) to pay a specified amount to a third person (the payee) or to the bearer. Unlike a promissory n… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 6 Cheque HIGH A cheque is a special type of bill of exchange that is always drawn on a bank (the drawee) and is always payable immediately on demand. The 2002 and 2015 amendments expanded the definition to include … ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 13 Negotiable Instrument MEDIUM A negotiable instrument is any of three instruments — a promissory note, a bill of exchange, or a cheque — that can be freely transferred (negotiated) to another person either by endorsement (signing … ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 14 Negotiation MEDIUM Negotiation is the process of transferring a negotiable instrument from one person to another in a way that makes the new recipient the legal "holder" — giving them the right to sue on it. For bearer … ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 85 Cheque Payable to Order MEDIUM Section 85 protects banks (drawee banks) from liability when they pay a cheque in good faith. If a cheque payable to a named person appears to have been endorsed by that person, and the bank pays acco… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 87 Effect of Material Alteration MEDIUM If anyone alters an important part of a negotiable instrument — such as the date, amount, payee name, or the bank on which it is drawn — without the consent of all parties, the instrument becomes void… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 118 Presumptions as to Negotiable Instruments HIGH This section establishes a set of legal presumptions that courts will automatically apply in favour of the holder of a negotiable instrument, unless the other party proves the contrary. Most criticall… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 138 Dishonour of Cheque for Insufficiency of Funds HIGH Section 138 makes it a criminal offence to issue a cheque that bounces because there is not enough money in the account — but only when the cheque was issued to discharge a debt or liability. The law … ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 139 Presumption in Favour of Holder HIGH Once a complainant shows that a cheque was dishonoured, the court automatically presumes that the cheque was issued to pay off a debt or liability — the accused does not get to simply deny this. The b… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 140 Defence Which May Not Be Allowed in Prosecution Under Section 138 HIGH The accused in a cheque-bounce case cannot escape liability by arguing "I did not know my account had insufficient funds when I issued the cheque." Ignorance of the account balance at the time of issu… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 141 Offences by Companies HIGH When a company issues a cheque that bounces, not just the company but also the persons running it can be prosecuted. Any director, manager, or officer who was responsible for the company's business op… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 142 Cognizance of Offences HIGH Section 142 sets out the procedural rules for filing a cheque-bounce criminal complaint. Three key rules: (1) Only the payee or holder in due course can file the complaint — police cannot take suo mot… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 143 Power of Court to Try Cases Summarily HIGH Cheque-bounce cases are to be tried summarily (using a faster simplified procedure) by a First Class or Metropolitan Magistrate. The procedure under Sections 262-265 of the CrPC applies. In a summary … ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 143A Power to Direct Interim Compensation HIGH Introduced in 2018, Section 143A is a game-changer for complainants. The moment the accused pleads not guilty, the court can order the accused to immediately pay up to 20% of the cheque amount as inte… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 144 Mode of Service of Summons HIGH Section 144 allows Magistrates to serve summons in cheque bounce cases by speed post or court-approved courier services — without requiring the traditional process server to personally deliver the sum… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 147 Offences to be Compoundable HIGH All offences under the NI Act — including cheque bounce under Section 138 — can be settled (compounded) between the complainant and the accused at any stage of proceedings. Compounding means the compl… ▾
NI Act 1881 Section 148 Power of Appellate Court to Order Payment Pending Appeal HIGH When a convicted person appeals against a Section 138 conviction, the appellate court can — and typically must — direct the appellant to deposit at least 20% of the fine or compensation awarded by the… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 2(a)–(h) Interpretation Clause — Key Definitions HIGH These definitions build the basic vocabulary of contract law. A "proposal" (offer) becomes a "promise" when accepted; a "promise" supported by consideration becomes an "agreement"; and an agreement en… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 10 What Agreements are Contracts HIGH An agreement becomes a legally binding contract only when five essentials are satisfied: (1) free consent of both parties, (2) parties are legally competent (age, soundness of mind, not disqualified b… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 11 Who are Competent to Contract MEDIUM A person can enter a contract only if they are (1) at least 18 years old (age of majority under Indian law), (2) of sound mind at the time of contracting, and (3) not otherwise disqualified — for exam… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 13 Consent Defined MEDIUM Consent requires a meeting of minds — both parties must understand and agree to exactly the same terms. If one party signs a document under the impression it contains different terms from what it actu… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 14 Free Consent Defined HIGH Consent is "free" only when it is given voluntarily, without any pressure, deception, or mistake. If a person signs a contract because they were threatened, deceived, manipulated, or were under a fund… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 15 Coercion Defined MEDIUM Coercion means forcing someone to sign a contract by threatening to commit a crime against them (or anyone else), or by wrongfully withholding their property. The threat does not have to be directed a… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 17 Fraud Defined HIGH Fraud is deliberate deception by one party to induce the other to enter a contract. It includes making a false statement of fact, hiding a material fact when there is a duty to disclose, or making a p… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 19 Voidability of Agreements without Free Consent HIGH If a person's consent to a contract was caused by coercion, fraud, or misrepresentation, that person can choose to either void the contract or affirm it (insisting the other party deliver what was pro… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 23 What Considerations and Objects are Unlawful MEDIUM A contract is void if its purpose or the consideration for it is illegal, defeats the purpose of any law, involves fraud or injury to others, or is immoral or against public policy. Such contracts are… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 25 Agreement without Consideration Void — Exceptions HIGH Contracts must generally have consideration to be enforceable. The three exceptions are: (1) a written and registered agreement out of natural love and affection between close relatives; (2) a promise… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 37 Obligation of Parties to Contracts — Duty to Perform MEDIUM Both parties to a contract are bound to either perform their promise or at least make a genuine offer to perform it. If a promisor dies before performing, the obligation passes to their legal represen… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 51 Promisor Not Bound to Perform Unless Reciprocal Promisee Ready MEDIUM In a contract involving mutual promises, neither party can demand the other's performance while refusing to perform their own obligation. If a party has not done what it promised, it cannot sue the ot… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 55 Effect of Failure to Perform at Fixed Time — Time of Essence HIGH Whether missing a deadline makes a contract voidable depends on whether "time is of the essence." If time is of the essence, a delay entitles the innocent party to void the contract. If time is not of… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 72 Liability of Person to Whom Money is Paid or Thing Delivered by Mistake or Under Coercion HIGH If you receive money by mistake (yours or someone else's) or under duress, you are legally bound to return it. This is the statutory basis for unjust enrichment claims in India — you cannot keep a ben… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 73 Compensation for Loss or Damage Caused by Breach of Contract HIGH When a contract is breached, the innocent party can recover damages for losses that (a) naturally flow from the breach, or (b) both parties contemplated at the time of contracting as likely consequenc… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 74 Compensation for Breach of Contract where Penalty Stipulated HIGH When a contract names a specific sum as damages for breach (liquidated damages) or contains a penalty clause, the court can award up to that sum as "reasonable compensation" — but not necessarily the … ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 128 Surety's Liability Co-Extensive with Principal Debtor HIGH A guarantor's liability is exactly as large as the principal borrower's liability — no more, but also no less. Unless the guarantee document expressly limits the guarantor's liability (to a specific a… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 129 Continuing Guarantee Defined HIGH A continuing guarantee is one that covers not just a single transaction but an ongoing series of transactions — for example, a guarantee covering all credit facilities extended to a borrower from time… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 130 Revocation of Continuing Guarantee HIGH A guarantor under a continuing guarantee can withdraw from future obligations at any time by giving written notice to the lender. Importantly, revocation only affects future transactions — the guarant… ▾
Contract Act 1872 Section 148 Bailment Defined MEDIUM A bailment is a temporary transfer of possession (not ownership) of goods from one person (bailor) to another (bailee) for a specific purpose, with an obligation on the bailee to return or dispose of … ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 2 Definitions HIGH Section 2 sets out the key definitions that govern the entire SARFAESI framework. The most important are: "borrower" (any person given financial assistance or who has given security for it), "NPA" (an… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 3 Registration of Securitisation Company or Reconstruction Company MEDIUM Any company wishing to carry on the business of securitisation or asset reconstruction must first obtain a Certificate of Registration (CoR) from the Reserve Bank of India and must maintain a minimum … ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 5 Acquisition of Rights or Interest in Financial Assets HIGH Section 5 is the legal mechanism by which Asset Reconstruction Companies (ARCs) purchase NPA portfolios from banks and financial institutions. Upon such acquisition, the ARC steps entirely into the sh… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 7 Powers of Securitisation Company or Reconstruction Company MEDIUM Section 7 sets out the active operational powers that an ARC may exercise to achieve asset reconstruction. These include acting as collection agent for the originating bank, managing possessed assets … ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 9 Measures for Asset Reconstruction MEDIUM Section 9 lists the specific tools an ARC may deploy for asset reconstruction after acquiring the NPA. These range from consensual measures (rescheduling, settlement, management change) to coercive on… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 13 Enforcement of Security Interest HIGH Section 13 is the engine of the entire SARFAESI Act. Once a borrower's account is classified as NPA, the secured creditor issues a written 60-day demand notice (S.13(2)) specifying the amount due and … ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 13(3A) Duty to Consider Borrower's Representation HIGH After receiving the S.13(2) demand notice, the borrower may submit a representation or objection to the secured creditor. The creditor is obligated to consider it and, if rejected, must communicate th… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 14 Chief Metropolitan Magistrate or District Magistrate to Assist Secured Creditor in Taking Possession of Secured Asset HIGH When a borrower physically resists handover of secured assets, the secured creditor can apply to the Chief Metropolitan Magistrate (CMM) in metropolitan areas or the District Magistrate (DM) in other … ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 17 Application Against Measures to Recover Secured Debts HIGH Section 17 is the borrower's primary legal remedy under SARFAESI. Once any enforcement action under S.13(4) has been taken — such as serving a possession notice, taking actual possession, or appointin… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 17A Appeal Against Order of Debts Recovery Tribunal HIGH Either party — borrower or secured creditor — dissatisfied with the DRT's order under S.17 may appeal to the Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal (DRAT) within 30 days of receiving the DRT order. The DRAT… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 18 Appeal to High Court MEDIUM Section 18 provides the final statutory appellate remedy — an appeal to the High Court against any DRAT order, to be filed within 30 days of receipt of the DRAT order. This is the apex statutory remed… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 19 Right of Borrower to Receive Notice MEDIUM Once the secured asset is sold by the secured creditor, any surplus sale proceeds over and above the outstanding dues and recovery expenses must be returned to the borrower within 15 days of the sale.… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 20 Central Registry HIGH Section 20 mandates the establishment of CERSAI — the Central Registry of Securitisation Asset Reconstruction and Security Interest of India — as the national database for registration of all security… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 26B Registration of Transactions with Central Registry HIGH Section 26B makes CERSAI registration of security interests mandatory: every security interest must be registered within 30 days of creation. Any modification, satisfaction, or release of the security… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 26C Priority to Secured Creditors HIGH Once a security interest is registered with CERSAI, the secured creditor's debt takes priority over all government dues — including central and state taxes, cess, and local body rates. This reverses t… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 31 Provisions of this Act not to Apply in Certain Cases HIGH Section 31 lists the categories of assets and transactions to which SARFAESI does not apply. The most important exclusions are: agricultural land (S.31(h)), security interests where the outstanding du… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 35 The Provisions of this Act to Override other Laws HIGH Section 35 is a non-obstante clause that gives SARFAESI overriding effect over all other laws — including state laws, the Transfer of Property Act, and other central legislation — to the extent of any… ▾
SARFAESI 2002 Section 37 Application of other Laws not Barred HIGH Section 37 clarifies that SARFAESI operates in addition to — not in replacement of — other debt recovery and financial legislation, including the RDDBFI Act 1993. Banks can simultaneously pursue SARFA… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 2 Definitions HIGH Section 2 is the definitions engine for the entire Act. It defines over 90 terms, of which the most critical for debt recovery and fraud litigation are: "holding company" and "subsidiary" (which deter… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 3 Formation of Company MEDIUM A company can be formed by a minimum number of persons depending on its type: one person for a One Person Company (OPC), two or more for a private company, and seven or more for a public company. The … ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 7 Incorporation of Company MEDIUM To register a company, the founders must file the memorandum, articles of association, declarations, and KYC documents with the Registrar of Companies. If any of these documents contain false informat… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 66 Reduction of Share Capital MEDIUM A company can reduce its share capital — essentially shrinking its financial cushion — but only after passing a special resolution and getting approval from the NCLT. The NCLT will object if creditors… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 71 Debentures HIGH Debentures are a form of long-term borrowing where companies issue debt instruments to investors. Secured debentures are backed by specific assets of the company. If a company fails to repay debenture… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 77 Duty to Register Charges HIGH Every time a company creates a charge (mortgage, pledge, hypothecation) over its property to secure a loan or obligation, it must register that charge with the Registrar of Companies (ROC) within 30 d… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 82 Company to Report Satisfaction of Charge MEDIUM Once a secured loan is fully repaid and the lender releases the charge, the company must inform the ROC within 30 days so the public register shows the charge as satisfied. If this is not done, the as… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 88 Register of Members and Debenture Holders MEDIUM Every company must maintain updated registers listing all shareholders, debenture holders, and other security holders. These registers must be kept at the registered office (or at a SEBI-approved regi… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 100 Calling of Extraordinary General Meeting MEDIUM An Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM) can be called by the Board of Directors at any time, or it can be requisitioned by shareholders holding at least 10% of voting rights. If the Board refuses or ig… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 149 Company to Have Board of Directors MEDIUM Every company must have a Board of Directors — at least two for a private company, three for a public company, and one for an OPC, with a ceiling of fifteen unless a special resolution permits more. L… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 166 Duties of Directors HIGH Directors owe a set of fiduciary and statutory duties to their company: they must act in good faith for the benefit of the company and all stakeholders; exercise reasonable care and skill; avoid confl… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 179 Powers of Board MEDIUM The Board of Directors holds the collective authority to run the company and exercise all its powers, subject to matters reserved for shareholders. Certain major decisions — like issuing debentures, a… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 185 Loan to Directors HIGH A company is generally prohibited from giving loans, guarantees, or security to its own directors or their relatives without shareholder approval by special resolution. This rule prevents directors fr… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 186 Loan and Investment by Company HIGH A company cannot give unlimited loans or guarantees to others — there is a cap of 60% of its paid-up capital and free reserves, or 100% of free reserves (whichever is higher), beyond which shareholder… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 188 Related Party Transactions HIGH Companies are restricted from entering into contracts with related parties — such as directors, their relatives, or associated companies — without Board approval and shareholder consent for larger tra… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 206 Power to Call for Information, Inspect Books and Conduct Inquiries MEDIUM The Registrar of Companies or the Central Government can direct any company to produce its books and records, or to explain discrepancies, as a preliminary step before ordering a formal investigation.… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 212 Investigation of Companies by Serious Fraud Investigation Office HIGH The Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SFIO) is a multi-disciplinary government agency empowered to investigate serious corporate fraud. Unlike a regular police agency, SFIO can investigate companies… ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 241 Application to Tribunal for Relief in Cases of Oppression and Mismanagement HIGH A shareholder who believes that the company's affairs are being run in a manner that is oppressive, prejudicial to their interests, or detrimental to the company's wellbeing can apply to the NCLT for … ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 271 Circumstances in Which Company May Be Wound Up by Tribunal HIGH The NCLT can order the compulsory winding up of a company on five grounds: the company itself resolves for winding up; the company has acted against national interest; the company's affairs have been … ▾
Companies Act 2013 Section 447 Punishment for Fraud HIGH Anyone found guilty of corporate fraud under the Companies Act faces a mandatory minimum of 6 months in prison (up to 10 years) and a fine equal to at least the full amount involved in the fraud (up t… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 2 Definitions HIGH Section 2 sets out the key definitions for the Act. "Legal disability" is limited to minority (being below the age of majority) and insanity — no other condition qualifies. "Period of limitation" is t… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 3 Bar of Limitation HIGH Section 3 is the core provision of the Act: any suit, appeal, or application filed after the prescribed limitation period must be dismissed by the court, even if the defendant has not raised limitatio… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 4 Expiry of Prescribed Period When Court is Closed MEDIUM If the last day of the limitation period falls on a day when the court is closed (public holiday, court vacation, or any day the court does not function during normal hours), the filing can be made on… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 5 Extension of Prescribed Period in Certain Cases (Condonation of Delay) HIGH Courts can condone delay in filing an appeal or an application if the party demonstrates "sufficient cause" for the delay. This provision applies only to appeals and applications — it does not apply t… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 6 Legal Disability — Minor or Person of Unsound Mind MEDIUM If the person who has the right to sue is a minor, insane, or an idiot at the time the limitation period begins to run, time does not run against them until their disability is removed. Once the disab… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 8 Special Exceptions to Section 6 MEDIUM Section 8 caps the extension available under Section 6 (legal disability) at three years from when the disability ended or the person died. No matter how long the disability lasted, the additional tim… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 9 Continuous Running of Time HIGH Once the limitation clock starts running, it cannot be stopped by any subsequent event — including a disability that arises after the limitation period has begun. The only statutory exception is the p… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 12 Exclusion of Time in Legal Proceedings MEDIUM When calculating the limitation period, the starting day itself is excluded (not counted). For appeals and review applications, the time genuinely required to obtain a copy of the judgment, decree, or… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 13 Exclusion of Time in Cases Where Leave to Sue or Appeal as a Pauper is Applied For MEDIUM If a party applies to sue as a pauper (without paying court fees) in good faith, and that application is later rejected, the time spent prosecuting the pauper application is excluded from the limitati… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 14 Exclusion of Time of Prior Proceeding in Good Faith Before Court Without Jurisdiction HIGH If a party files a claim in the wrong court (one that lacks jurisdiction) in good faith and with due diligence, the time spent in that wrong proceeding is excluded when calculating limitation for the … ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 15 Exclusion of Time When Injunction or Order Stays Proceedings HIGH When a court order or injunction prevents a party from filing a suit or application, the time during which that restraint order is in force — including the day it was made and the day it was lifted — … ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 17 Effect of Fraud or Mistake HIGH Where the cause of action itself is based on fraud by the defendant, or the plaintiff's right is concealed by fraud, limitation does not start running until the plaintiff discovered (or with reasonabl… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 18 Effect of Acknowledgment in Writing HIGH If a person who owes a duty or obligation makes a written acknowledgment of that liability before the limitation period expires, a completely fresh limitation period starts from the date of that ackno… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 19 Effect of Payment on Account of Debt or of Interest on Legacy HIGH Any part payment made by the debtor (or their authorised agent) toward a debt before the limitation period expires starts the three-year limitation period afresh from the date of that payment. The pay… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 20 Effect of Acknowledgment or Payment by Another Person HIGH For the purposes of Sections 18 and 19, an "agent" includes a legal guardian (for persons under disability) and a partner or firm agent (for partnership firms). Critically, one co-defendant cannot act… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 21 Effect of Substituting or Adding New Plaintiff or Defendant MEDIUM When a new party is added to or substituted in an ongoing suit, the limitation for claims involving that new party runs from the date they were made a party — not from the original filing date. Courts… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Section 22 Continuing Breach of Contract and Nuisance MEDIUM Where a breach of contract is continuous (not a one-time breach), a fresh limitation period begins running at every moment the breach continues. This means the claim does not become time-barred as lon… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Article 137 (Schedule) Residuary Provision — Any Other Application HIGH Where no specific Article in the Schedule prescribes a limitation period for a particular type of application, Article 137 applies as the residual catch-all provision, prescribing a three-year limitat… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Article 36 (Schedule) Suit on Promissory Note MEDIUM Suits to recover money due under a promissory note or hundi must be filed within three years from the date of the note (or from demand, for demand promissory notes, or from presentment for sight instr… ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Article 55 (Schedule) Suit for Compensation for Breach of Contract MEDIUM Suits claiming compensation for breach of a contract (whether written or oral, but not registered) must be filed within three years from the date of the breach. For successive or continuing breaches, … ▾
Limitation Act 1963 Article 62 (Schedule) Suit for Money Payable by Written Instrument HIGH Suits to recover money payable under a written instrument (such as a loan agreement, bond, debenture, or guarantee) must be filed within three years from the date the money became due and payable. Thi… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 4 Specific relief only for enforcing individual civil rights, not for enforcing penal laws MEDIUM Courts grant specific relief only to protect or enforce a person's private civil rights — such as their right to property, a contract, or a title — not to punish someone for breaking a law. If the onl… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 9 Defences respecting suits for relief based on contract HIGH A defendant in a specific performance suit may raise any defence that would be valid in a contract dispute — such as coercion, fraud, misrepresentation, lack of consideration, or mutual mistake. All g… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 10 Specific performance of contracts — when enforceable HIGH After the 2018 Amendment, specific performance is no longer a matter of judicial discretion — a party who establishes a valid contract and the other party's breach is entitled to specific performance … ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 11 Cases in which specific performance of part of contract may be decreed MEDIUM Courts generally will not order specific performance of only a portion of a contract — it must be enforced in its entirety or not at all. The exception is where the unperformed part is minor in value,… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 14 Contracts not specifically enforceable HIGH Some contracts cannot be specifically performed by court order. These include: (a) ordinary contracts where money damages are sufficient compensation; (b) contracts requiring unique personal skills or… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 16 Personal bars to relief — who cannot obtain specific performance HIGH A person cannot claim specific performance if: (a) they have no legal right to sue for breach; (b) they themselves have breached an essential term, acted fraudulently, or made performance impossible; … ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 19 Relief against parties and persons claiming under them HIGH Specific performance can be enforced not only against the contracting parties but also against third parties who derive their title from a contracting party after the contract was made — unless that t… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 20 Substituted performance of contract HIGH Under the 2018 Amendment, if a party breaches a contract, the aggrieved party can choose to get the contract performed by a third party or themselves, and then recover all costs from the defaulting pa… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 21 Power to award compensation in addition to specific performance HIGH In a specific performance suit, the plaintiff can simultaneously claim money compensation — either as an alternative (if specific performance is refused) or as a supplement (if specific performance al… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 22 Power to grant relief for possession, partition, refund of earnest money etc. HIGH A plaintiff in a specific performance suit for immovable property can simultaneously ask for: (a) physical delivery/possession of the property (or a portion of it through partition); and (b) a refund … ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 34 Discretion of court to grant declaratory decree HIGH Any person whose legal status or property rights are denied or disputed can sue for a declaratory decree — a court judgment formally declaring their legal position — without needing to claim any addit… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 37 Temporary and perpetual injunctions HIGH Injunctions come in two forms: temporary (interim) injunctions, which last until a specified date or further court order and can be granted at any stage of proceedings; and perpetual (permanent) injun… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 38 Perpetual injunction when granted HIGH A perpetual injunction permanently restrains a defendant from breaching an obligation owed to the plaintiff. In property matters, courts grant perpetual injunctions particularly where: the defendant i… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 39 Mandatory injunctions HIGH A mandatory injunction goes further than a restraining order — it actively compels a party to do something (not merely stop doing something). Courts issue mandatory injunctions to force performance of… ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 40 Damages in lieu of, or in addition to, injunction HIGH In an injunction suit, the plaintiff can simultaneously claim money compensation — either in addition to the injunction (to cover losses already suffered) or as a substitute for the injunction (where … ▾
Specific Relief 1963 Section 41 Injunction when refused HIGH Courts will refuse to grant an injunction in several standard situations: to stop ongoing court proceedings (unless preventing multiplicity); to interfere with higher courts; to stop criminal proceedi… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 2 Definitions HIGH Section 2 defines the core terms used throughout RERA. "Carpet area" is the actual usable floor space inside the apartment (excluding external walls, balconies, and service shafts) — this is the only … ▾
RERA 2016 Section 3 Prior Registration of Real Estate Project HIGH Before a developer can advertise, sell, or even take bookings for a project, they must first register the project with the state RERA authority. Projects ongoing on the date RERA came into force (May … ▾
RERA 2016 Section 4 Application for Registration of Real Estate Project HIGH Every promoter registering a project under RERA must submit a comprehensive package of documents including land title papers, all approvals and commencement certificates, sanctioned building plans, dr… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 5 Grant of Registration MEDIUM The RERA authority must decide on a registration application within 30 days — either granting registration (with a project login and registration number) or rejecting it with written reasons after giv… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 6 Extension of Registration MEDIUM A promoter can apply for an extension of their RERA registration if the project is delayed due to force majeure events (war, natural disasters, floods, fire, etc.) or other reasonable circumstances no… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 7 Revocation of Registration HIGH The RERA authority can revoke a promoter's project registration if the promoter defaults on RERA obligations, violates approval conditions, or engages in unfair or deceptive practices (including false… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 11 Functions and Duties of Promoter HIGH The promoter has a continuing statutory duty to keep the RERA project webpage updated with quarterly progress reports, list of units booked, pending approvals, and construction status. Every advertise… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 12 Obligations of Promoter Regarding Veracity of Advertisement or Prospectus HIGH If a buyer pays an advance or deposit based on any advertisement, brochure, or model flat, and the information in that advertisement turns out to be false or misleading, the promoter must compensate t… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 13 No Deposit or Advance Without Agreement for Sale HIGH A promoter cannot take more than 10% of the total sale price from a buyer without first executing and registering a formal agreement for sale. This prevents the common practice of collecting large "bo… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 14 Adherence to Sanctioned Plans and Project Specifications HIGH The promoter must build the project exactly as per the sanctioned and approved plans. After conveyance, the promoter cannot make any changes to an individual apartment without the specific allottee's … ▾
RERA 2016 Section 18 Return of Amount and Compensation HIGH If a promoter fails to hand over possession on the date agreed in the sale agreement, the allottee has two choices: (1) exit the project and demand a full refund of all money paid, with interest from … ▾
RERA 2016 Section 19 Rights and Duties of Allottees HIGH Allottees have a statutory right to inspect and obtain copies of all approved plans, time schedules, and project information; claim possession on the promised date; demand a refund with interest if th… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 31 Filing of Complaints with the Authority or Adjudicating Officer HIGH Any aggrieved person — including an individual allottee, an association of allottees, or a registered consumer organisation — may file a complaint with either the RERA authority or the adjudicating of… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 40 Recovery of Interest, Penalty, Compensation, Fine HIGH Any interest, penalty, or compensation ordered by RERA or the Appellate Tribunal can be recovered as "arrears of land revenue" — meaning the government's revenue recovery machinery (which can attach a… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 71 Power to Adjudicate HIGH A judicial officer of the rank of District Judge or above is appointed as Adjudicating Officer under RERA to hear and decide claims for monetary compensation under sections 12, 14, 18, and 19. The Adj… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 72 Factors to be Taken into Account by the Adjudicating Officer MEDIUM When deciding how much compensation to award, the Adjudicating Officer must consider three factors: how much the developer gained from their wrongdoing (their profit from the default), how much actual… ▾
RERA 2016 Section 89 Act to Have Overriding Effect HIGH RERA overrides all other laws and agreements to the extent of any inconsistency. This means that contractual clauses, stamp duty laws, state real estate laws, or provisions of any other Act that confl… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 3 Definitions (General) HIGH Section 3 lays down the foundational definitions used throughout the Code. A "corporate debtor" is any company or LLP that owes money to someone. A "claim" is broadly defined to include any right to p… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 5 Definitions — Part II (Financial Creditor, Operational Creditor, Default) HIGH Section 5 defines the two main creditor categories under the IBC. A "financial creditor" is anyone owed money disbursed against consideration for time value of money — primarily banks, financial insti… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 6 Persons Who May Initiate Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process HIGH Section 6 specifies who can trigger the CIRP: a financial creditor (under Section 7), an operational creditor (under Section 9), or the corporate debtor itself (under Section 10). The right arises as … ▾
IBC 2016 Section 7 Initiation of Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process by Financial Creditor HIGH Section 7 is the primary route for banks and financial institutions to push a defaulting borrower into insolvency. The creditor files a petition before the NCLT, proves that a financial debt exists an… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 8 Demand Notice by Operational Creditor HIGH Before an operational creditor can file a CIRP application, it must first send a formal demand notice (or copy of invoice) to the corporate debtor. The corporate debtor then has exactly 10 days to eit… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 9 Application for Initiation of CIRP by Operational Creditor HIGH Once the 10-day demand notice period has expired without payment or dispute, the operational creditor may file a formal CIRP application before the NCLT. The application must be accompanied by the dem… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 14 Moratorium HIGH The moment CIRP commences, the NCLT automatically declares a moratorium — a complete legal freeze on all actions against the corporate debtor. No new lawsuits can be filed, existing suits are stayed, … ▾
IBC 2016 Section 17 Management of Affairs of Corporate Debtor by Interim Resolution Professional HIGH From the moment an Interim Resolution Professional (IRP) is appointed — typically within 3 days of admission — the Board of Directors of the corporate debtor is suspended. The IRP takes over full cont… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 18 Duties of Interim Resolution Professional MEDIUM The IRP has specific statutory duties: collect financial information (2 years of data), receive creditor claims pursuant to the public announcement, form the Committee of Creditors, manage the company… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 21 Committee of Creditors HIGH The Committee of Creditors (CoC) is the governing body of the CIRP — comprising all financial creditors with voting shares proportional to their outstanding debt. Operational creditors are not members… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 25 Duties of Resolution Professional MEDIUM The Resolution Professional (RP) confirmed by the CoC takes over from the IRP and runs the entire resolution process. Key duties include protecting corporate debtor assets, running the business as a g… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 30 Submission of Resolution Plan HIGH Resolution applicants (prospective buyers or restructuring entities) submit their plans to the RP, who checks each plan for compliance with minimum eligibility conditions. A valid resolution plan must… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 31 Approval of Resolution Plan HIGH Once the CoC approves a resolution plan by 66% vote, the NCLT reviews it for statutory compliance and, if satisfied, passes an approval order. The approved plan is then binding on absolutely everyone … ▾
IBC 2016 Section 33 Initiation of Liquidation HIGH Liquidation is triggered when: (a) no resolution plan is submitted before the CIRP deadline, (b) NCLT rejects all plans, or (c) the CoC itself votes by 66% to liquidate (giving up on resolution). Once… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 35 Powers and Duties of Liquidator MEDIUM The liquidator has broad powers to take control of all corporate assets, sell property (by auction or private sale), run the business to the extent needed for beneficial winding up, verify creditor cl… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 52 Secured Creditor in Liquidation Proceedings HIGH In liquidation, secured creditors (primarily banks with mortgage or charge over assets) have a choice: either hand their security over to the liquidator and receive proceeds through the Section 53 wat… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 53 Distribution of Assets in Liquidation HIGH Section 53 establishes the "waterfall" — the strict priority order in which liquidation proceeds are distributed. Process costs come first, then secured financial creditors (who relinquished security)… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 61 Appeals and Appellate Authority (NCLAT) HIGH NCLAT is the appellate authority for all NCLT orders under Part II. Appeals must be filed within 30 days (extendable by 15 days for sufficient cause). Importantly, appeals against approved resolution … ▾
IBC 2016 Section 96 Moratorium for Individuals HIGH When a personal insolvency application is filed (either by the debtor under Section 94 or a creditor under Section 95), an automatic interim moratorium kicks in immediately — staying all debt-recovery… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 178 Proof of Debt MEDIUM In individual insolvency proceedings, every creditor must formally "prove" their debt by submitting evidence in the prescribed form within the required timeframe. Creditors can claim the outstanding p… ▾
IBC 2016 Section 229 Power to Make Rules MEDIUM Section 229 is the enabling power that allows the Central Government to make detailed procedural rules under the IBC. The CIRP Regulations, Liquidation Regulations, Voluntary Liquidation Regulations, … ▾
CPC 1908 Section 2 Definitions HIGH This section defines the key terms used throughout the CPC. A "decree" is the court's final or preliminary decision that settles the rights of the parties — once a money decree is passed, the decree-h… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 9 Courts to Try All Civil Suits Unless Barred HIGH Civil courts have jurisdiction to try every civil dispute unless another law specifically excludes them. This means that even if a specialised tribunal (like a DRT) has jurisdiction over certain matte… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 10 Stay of Suit (Res Sub Judice) MEDIUM When the same issue between the same parties is already being litigated in an earlier suit that is still pending, the later court must stay its proceedings until the earlier suit is decided. This doct… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 11 Res Judicata HIGH Once a court of competent jurisdiction has finally decided a dispute between parties, neither party can re-litigate the same matter in a new suit. Res judicata (Latin: "the matter has been judged") is… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 20 Other Suits to Be Instituted Where Defendants Reside or Cause of Action Arises MEDIUM A civil suit must be filed in a court where the defendant resides/does business, or where the cause of action (the facts giving rise to the claim) arose — wholly or partly. For banks and lenders, the … ▾
CPC 1908 Section 26 Institution of Suits MEDIUM A civil suit is commenced by filing a plaint (a written statement of the claim) in the appropriate court. The 2002 amendment added the requirement that facts in a plaint be supported by an affidavit —… ▾
CPC 1908 Order 37 Summary Suits HIGH Order 37 creates a fast-track procedure for recovering money due on negotiable instruments (cheques, bills, promissory notes), written contracts, and guarantees. In a summary suit, the defendant has n… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 51 Powers of Court to Enforce Execution HIGH Once a money decree is passed, Section 51 gives the court a menu of enforcement tools: attaching and selling the judgment-debtor's property, arresting and imprisoning them (in limited circumstances of… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 60 Property Liable to Attachment and Sale in Execution of Decree HIGH Almost every asset of a judgment-debtor can be attached in execution — land, buildings, bank accounts, shares, receivables, vehicles, and other movables. The exceptions are narrow: basic personal item… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 65 Purchaser's Title MEDIUM When property is sold through a court auction in execution of a decree and the sale is confirmed (becomes absolute), the buyer's title dates back to the date of the auction sale itself — not the later… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 80 Notice to Government Before Suit MEDIUM Before suing the Central or State Government or a government officer acting in official capacity, the plaintiff must give two months' advance written notice specifying the claim. Only after this waiti… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 89 Settlement of Disputes Outside Court MEDIUM Once a suit is pending, the court must explore whether the parties are willing to settle and, if so, refer the matter to arbitration, conciliation, Lok Adalat, or mediation. This provision mandates th… ▾
CPC 1908 Order 38 Attachment Before Judgment HIGH Before the final decree is passed, a creditor (plaintiff) can ask the court to attach the defendant's property if there is evidence that the defendant is about to dispose of or remove assets to frustr… ▾
CPC 1908 Order 39 Temporary Injunctions and Interlocutory Orders HIGH A temporary injunction is a court order restraining a party from doing something (like selling or transferring property) while the suit is pending. The court grants it when it is satisfied that the pr… ▾
CPC 1908 Order 40 Appointment of Receivers MEDIUM A receiver is a neutral officer appointed by the court to take custody and management of disputed property during or after a suit. The receiver can collect rents, manage assets, bring or defend suits,… ▾
CPC 1908 Order 21 Execution of Decrees and Orders HIGH Order 21 is the most detailed and practically important Order in the CPC — it prescribes the entire procedure for enforcing a money decree. It covers how to attach bank accounts (Rule 46), how to atta… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 96 Appeal from Original Decrees MEDIUM A party aggrieved by a civil court's decree can appeal to the higher court — typically from a District Court to the High Court, and from the High Court to the Supreme Court. Even an ex parte decree (p… ▾
CPC 1908 Section 115 Revision MEDIUM Where no appeal lies from an interlocutory order of a subordinate court, the High Court can exercise its supervisory revision jurisdiction to correct jurisdictional errors, excess of jurisdiction, or … ▾
CPC 1908 Section 151 Saving of Inherent Powers of Court MEDIUM The CPC does not exhaustively list every order a court can make — Section 151 preserves the court's inherent power to pass any order necessary to do justice or prevent abuse of its process. Courts inv… ▾
CPC 1908 Order 7, Rule 11 Rejection of Plaint HIGH A plaint (the suit-initiating document) will be rejected outright — without the suit being heard — if it fails to disclose a cause of action, if the suit is already time-barred by law, if court fees a… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 2 Definitions HIGH Section 2 is the definitional backbone of the Act. It defines over 50 terms — the most practically significant being "consumer" (who can file), "deficiency" (what wrong must be proved), "service" (wha… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 2(7) Consumer — Definition HIGH A "consumer" is a person who buys goods or avails of services for personal use after paying some consideration (money). Two categories of non-consumers are carved out: (a) those who buy goods for resa… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 2(11) Deficiency — Definition HIGH Deficiency in service means any failure to deliver service at the standard required by law or by contract. This includes sloppy or inadequate performance, active wrongdoing (commission), failure to ac… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 2(42) Service — Definition HIGH Service means virtually any service offered to people in return for payment — including banking, financing, insurance, transport, utilities, telecom, construction, and entertainment. Two things are no… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 5 Central Consumer Protection Authority — Establishment MEDIUM The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) is a national-level regulator created under the 2019 Act specifically to protect consumers as a class — not just individual complainants. It can invest… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 9 Consumer Disputes Redressal Commissions — Establishment HIGH Section 9 establishes the three-tier consumer dispute resolution system: (a) District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (District Commission) — one per district, handles smaller claims; (b) State… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 17 District Commission — Pecuniary Jurisdiction HIGH The District Commission can hear consumer complaints where the value of the goods or services paid for does not exceed ₹1 crore (though currently the operative limit under government notification is ₹… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 34 State Commission — Pecuniary and Appellate Jurisdiction HIGH The State Commission serves a dual role: (a) it is the original forum for consumer complaints worth between ₹50 lakhs and ₹2 crore (under current notification), and (b) it hears appeals against Distri… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 47 National Commission — Jurisdiction HIGH The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (NCDRC) in New Delhi is the apex consumer forum. It has original jurisdiction for the largest claims (above ₹2 crore under current notification), he… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 24 Findings of District Commission MEDIUM If the District Commission finds a complaint to be frivolous or vexatious — meaning it was filed without genuine grounds, to harass or delay the opposite party — it can dismiss the complaint and impos… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 38 Procedure on Receipt of Complaint MEDIUM When a consumer complaint is filed, the District Commission sends a copy to the opposite party (e.g., bank, NBFC, insurer) and gives them 30 days (extendable by 15 days) to file their written version.… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 49 Powers of State Commission MEDIUM The State Commission has broad powers equivalent to a civil court — it can summon witnesses, order document production, receive evidence on affidavit, and commission expert analysis. It can also revie… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 58 National Commission — Powers and Functions MEDIUM The NCDRC has all the powers of the State Commission plus an additional general power to pass any order necessary for the ends of justice or to prevent abuse of process. This includes inherent powers … ▾
Consumer Protection Section 67 Appeal to Supreme Court HIGH A party aggrieved by an NCDRC order in its original jurisdiction (not an appeal from State Commission) can challenge it before the Supreme Court within 30 days. There is a pre-deposit condition: the a… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 69 Limitation Period HIGH A consumer complaint must be filed within 2 years of the date when the cause of action first arose. If the complaint is filed late, the consumer must explain the delay satisfactorily — if accepted, th… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 72 Penalties for Non-Compliance HIGH Failure to comply with a consumer commission order is a criminal offence. The punishment is imprisonment of 1 month to 3 years, or a fine of ₹25,000 to ₹1 lakh, or both. This provision transforms cons… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 88 Offences by Companies HIGH When a company commits an offence under the CPA, both the company and every person in charge of and responsible for the company's business are liable. An individual officer can escape liability only i… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 89 Compounding of Offences MEDIUM Certain offences under the CPA that do not require mandatory imprisonment can be settled (compounded) — either before or after prosecution is started — with the permission of the State Commission or N… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 100 Act Not in Derogation of Any Other Law HIGH The Consumer Protection Act supplements — and does not replace — all other existing laws. A consumer can pursue remedies under the CPA in addition to, or alongside, remedies available under other stat… ▾
Consumer Protection Section 37 Mediation — Reference and Settlement MEDIUM At the very first hearing and at every subsequent stage, the consumer commission must explore whether the parties are willing to settle through mediation. If both parties agree, the case is sent to a … ▾
TPA 1882 Section 5 Transfer of Property Defined MEDIUM Transfer of property means passing ownership — or an interest in property — from one living person or entity to another, now or at a future date. It covers sales, mortgages, leases, gifts, and exchang… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 6 What May Be Transferred MEDIUM Almost any property can be transferred unless specifically prohibited. Key non-transferable items include: spes successionis (expectation of inheriting), easement rights, personal rights like maintena… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 53 Fraudulent Transfer HIGH If a borrower transfers property to cheat their creditors — at undervalue, to a relative, or after default — that transfer can be set aside by the court. A genuine buyer who paid fair price without kn… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 54 Sale Defined MEDIUM A sale transfers full ownership in exchange for money. For property worth Rs. 100 or more, a registered sale deed is mandatory. A sale agreement (agreement to sell) is not a sale — it does not transfe… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 58 Mortgage Defined and Six Types HIGH A mortgage transfers only an interest — not full ownership — in property to secure a loan. There are six types: (a) Simple mortgage — personal liability + power of sale, no delivery of possession; (b)… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 60 Right of Mortgagor to Redeem HIGH A mortgagor can reclaim the property at any time after the loan falls due by paying the full outstanding amount. This right — the equity of redemption — is absolute and cannot be taken away or restric… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 67 Right to Foreclose or Sell HIGH When the borrower defaults, the lender can go to court for either foreclosure (permanently extinguishing the borrower's redemption right) or a sale decree (court-ordered sale with proceeds going to th… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 69 Power of Sale When Valid MEDIUM A mortgagee can sell the property without a court order only in three limited situations — English mortgage between non-Hindu/Muslim/Buddhist parties, express power of sale in a deed in specified town… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 100 Charges on Immovable Property HIGH A charge is a form of security over property where no property interest is transferred — only an encumbrance is created. Charges arise by agreement or by operation of law (like an unpaid vendor's lien… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 105 Lease Defined MEDIUM A lease gives the tenant the right to use property for a fixed period in exchange for rent. Unlike a sale or mortgage, a lease transfers only the right of enjoyment — ownership remains with the landlo… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 122 Gift Defined MEDIUM A gift is a voluntary, gratuitous transfer — no money or consideration changes hands. The donee must accept during the donor's lifetime. A gift deed of immovable property must be registered. Gifts mad… ▾
TPA 1882 Section 130 Transfer of Actionable Claim HIGH An actionable claim — such as a debt or a right to claim money — can be transferred by a signed written instrument. Once transferred, all the original creditor's rights and remedies pass to the new cr… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 2 Definitions MEDIUM Key definitions: "arbitration" covers both ad hoc and institutional arbitration; "arbitral award" includes interim awards; "Court" for Part I purposes means the Principal Civil Court or High Court wit… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 7 Arbitration Agreement HIGH An arbitration agreement is any written agreement between parties to resolve disputes through arbitration rather than courts. It can be a clause within a larger contract (like a loan agreement) or a s… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 8 Power to Refer Parties to Arbitration HIGH If a party to an arbitration agreement files a court case on a matter covered by that agreement, the other party can apply to the court to refer the dispute to arbitration. The court must do so if a v… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 9 Interim Measures by Court HIGH A party to an arbitration can apply to court for urgent interim protection — freezing assets, injunctions, appointing receivers — before, during, or after the arbitration. This is the safety valve ens… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 11 Appointment of Arbitrators MEDIUM Parties can agree on any appointment procedure. If they fail to agree on an arbitrator within 30 days, either party can approach the designated High Court (for domestic arbitration) or Supreme Court (… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 16 Competence of Tribunal to Rule on Jurisdiction MEDIUM An arbitral tribunal can decide its own jurisdiction — it does not need a court's prior confirmation. Critically, even if the main contract is invalid (e.g., a loan agreement is declared void), the ar… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 17 Interim Measures by Arbitral Tribunal MEDIUM The arbitral tribunal itself can grant interim relief — injunctions, asset freezes, security — during arbitration proceedings. After the 2015 Amendment, orders of the tribunal under Section 17 are tre… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 29B Fast Track Procedure MEDIUM Parties can opt for a fast-track arbitration process conducted entirely on documents — no oral hearings. The tribunal must issue an award within 6 months. This is ideal for commercial debt recovery di… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 34 Application for Setting Aside Arbitral Award HIGH An arbitral award can only be challenged on very narrow grounds — not on merits. The grounds are: incapacity of a party, invalid arbitration agreement, denial of natural justice, award outside the sco… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 36 Enforcement of Award HIGH Once the challenge period expires (or a challenge is dismissed), an arbitral award is enforced exactly like a court decree — through execution proceedings. Critically, filing a Section 34 challenge do… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 37 Appealable Orders MEDIUM Appeals in arbitration are strictly limited to four categories of orders: Section 9 interim relief (granted or refused), Section 34 award challenge (set aside or upheld), Section 16 jurisdiction rulin… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 45 Power of Judicial Authority to Refer to Arbitration (Part II) MEDIUM For international commercial arbitration agreements (Part II — New York Convention), any Indian court must refer parties to arbitration on application, unless the arbitration agreement is clearly inva… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 48 Conditions for Enforcement of Foreign Awards MEDIUM A foreign arbitral award (from a New York Convention country) will be enforced in India unless the opposing party proves specific narrow grounds: incapacity, invalid agreement, denial of notice, award… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 69 Enforcement of Conciliation Settlement Agreement MEDIUM A settlement agreement reached through conciliation is as final and binding as an arbitral award. It can be enforced as a court decree under Section 36. This gives conciliation-reached OTS (one-time s… ▾
Arbitration Act 1996 Section 29A Time Limit for Arbitral Award MEDIUM Domestic arbitral tribunals must make an award within 12 months of completing pleadings, extendable by 6 months with party consent. If no award is made within this period, the arbitrator's mandate exp… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 2 Definitions HIGH A "document" now expressly includes electronic and digital records — emails, WhatsApp messages, PDFs, scanned documents, and server-stored data all qualify. "Evidence" covers both oral testimony and d… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 4 May Presume, Shall Presume, Conclusive Proof HIGH There are three levels of presumption: "may presume" — the court has discretion; "shall presume" — the court must treat the fact as proved unless rebutted; "conclusive proof" — the fact is irrebuttabl… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 57 Facts of Which Court Must Take Judicial Notice MEDIUM Courts must automatically accept certain well-known facts without requiring proof — including all Indian laws, public Acts, and official government proceedings. This means a DRT does not need the text… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 63 Admissibility of Electronic Records HIGH Electronic records (printouts, digital copies) are admissible as evidence if: they come from a computer regularly used for that purpose, the data was regularly fed into it in the normal course of busi… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 73 Proof of Documents by Primary Evidence MEDIUM The best rule: the original document must be produced in court as primary evidence. If a loan agreement was executed in two counterparts, each counterpart is primary evidence against the party who sig… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 74 Cases in Which Secondary Evidence May Be Given HIGH Secondary evidence (copies, certified copies) is allowed when: the original is in the opponent's possession and they refuse to produce it after notice; the opponent has admitted the document's content… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 80 Proof of Documents Admissible in Evidence MEDIUM Courts automatically presume that official court records, judicial proceeding records, and official statements are genuine without requiring further proof of authenticity. This presumption extends to … ▾
BSA 2023 Section 81 Presumption as to Gazettes, Official Records MEDIUM Courts presume that Gazette notifications, official records required to be maintained by law, and documents kept in their required form are genuine. This includes RBI notifications, Ministry of Financ… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 94 Exclusion of Evidence to Explain or Amend Ambiguous Document HIGH The parol evidence rule: once a document is executed, you cannot use oral evidence to contradict or vary its written terms. However, where the document is ambiguous on its face, extrinsic evidence may… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 110 Burden of Proof as to Certain Facts HIGH The general rule: whoever wants the court to believe a fact must prove it. In debt recovery cases, the bank proves the debt (loan documents, account statements, demand notice) and the burden shifts to… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 118 Estoppel HIGH Estoppel prevents a person from contradicting what they earlier stated or implied if another person reasonably relied on it. In banking: if a borrower represented to the bank that there are no prior c… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 130 Banker's Books as Evidence HIGH Certified copies of entries in a bank's books (ledgers, account books, digital records) are admissible as evidence of the transactions recorded, without needing to produce the original books. This sec… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 136 Judge to Decide as to Admissibility MEDIUM The judge acts as a gatekeeper for admissibility — the party proposing to admit evidence must explain its relevance. The judge admits only relevant evidence. Where one fact is admissible only after pr… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 62–63 (Read Together) Secondary Evidence of Electronic Records HIGH For electronic records, a certificate signed by a responsible official confirming how the record was produced and identifying the device is required for admissibility. This certificate functions as th… ▾
BSA 2023 Section 115 Relevancy of Opinion as to Handwriting MEDIUM A person who is familiar with another's handwriting (from seeing them write, receiving letters from them, or dealing with their documents in business) can give an opinion on whether a document was wri… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 2 Definitions MEDIUM Key IT Act definitions relevant to banking: "access" means gaining entry into or communicating with a computer system; "computer" broadly covers all electronic data processing systems including server… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 3A Electronic Signature HIGH Electronic signatures (including eSign, OTP-based authentication, and Aadhaar-linked signatures) are legally valid if they meet the reliability standards specified by the government. An electronic sig… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 10A Validity of Contracts Formed Through Electronic Means HIGH An agreement formed entirely through electronic means — offer by email, acceptance by clicking "I Agree", or digitally signed documents — is a valid and enforceable contract. The contract cannot be ch… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 43 Penalty and Compensation for Damage to Computer Systems HIGH Unauthorised access to a computer system, downloading data without permission, introducing viruses, causing disruption, or fraudulently charging someone else's account — all these make the person liab… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 43A Compensation for Failure to Protect Data HIGH A company (including a bank or NBFC) that negligently fails to implement reasonable security practices for sensitive personal data — and this failure causes loss to a person — is liable to pay compens… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 66 Computer-Related Offences HIGH When the acts described in Section 43 (unauthorized access, data theft, virus introduction, system disruption) are done dishonestly or fraudulently — not just accidentally — they become criminal offen… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 66C Identity Theft HIGH Using someone else's password, electronic signature, or other digital identity without authorisation is identity theft — punishable with imprisonment up to 3 years and a fine up to Rs. 1 lakh. This co… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 72 Breach of Confidentiality and Privacy MEDIUM Any person who obtains access to electronic records, documents, or information through their official powers under the IT Act — and then discloses it to others without consent — commits an offence. Th… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 79 Exemption from Liability of Intermediary MEDIUM An intermediary (like a payment gateway, internet service provider, or digital marketplace) is not liable for third-party content passing through its platform — as long as it is only providing the pla… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 85 Offences by Companies HIGH When a company commits an IT Act violation, every director, manager, or officer responsible for the company's conduct is personally liable along with the company — unless they prove the violation happ… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 65B (Repealed/Replaced) Admissibility of Electronic Records — Historical Provision HIGH The IT Act originally contained Section 65B governing electronic records in evidence. This has been replaced by BSA Section 63 from 1 July 2024. However, the jurisprudence developed under Section 65B … ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 46 Power to Adjudicate MEDIUM The government appoints Adjudicating Officers to hear civil compensation claims under the IT Act (like Section 43 claims). These officers have civil court powers including summoning witnesses, requiri… ▾
IT Act 2000 Section 1A Application of IT Act to Electronic Banking HIGH The IT Act does NOT apply to negotiable instruments (cheques, promissory notes, bills of exchange), powers of attorney, trusts, wills, or contracts for sale of immovable property. These must still be … ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 2 Definitions HIGH "Information" is broadly defined — it covers documents, emails, opinions, contracts, electronic data, and even information held by private bodies that can be accessed by a public authority. "Public au… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 3 Right to Information MEDIUM Every Indian citizen has the right to request information from any public authority. The right is not available to non-citizens or corporate entities — only individuals who are citizens of India can f… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 4 Obligations of Public Authorities — Proactive Disclosure MEDIUM Public authorities — including public sector banks — must proactively publish a wide range of information on their websites without waiting for RTI applications: organisational structure, powers of of… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 6 Request for Obtaining Information HIGH An RTI application can be filed in writing or online in English, Hindi, or the local official language. The applicant does not need to give any reason for seeking information. A fee of Rs. 10 (by cash… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 7 Disposal of Request HIGH The PIO must respond within 30 days — providing the information (on payment of any applicable copy fees) or rejecting with reasons. For information concerning life or liberty, the response must come w… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 8 Exemption from Disclosure HIGH Public authorities can refuse to disclose information on grounds including: commercial confidence (trade secrets), information held in fiduciary capacity, and information that would impede ongoing inv… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 11 Third Party Information MEDIUM If the information sought relates to a third party who has supplied it in confidence, the PIO must give that third party notice before disclosing. The third party can object to disclosure within 10 da… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 19 Appeal HIGH Two-stage appeal process: First Appeal — within 30 days of refusal or deadline expiry, to the First Appellate Authority (a senior officer in the same bank). Second Appeal — within 90 days of the FAA d… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 20 Penalties MEDIUM The CIC/SIC can impose a penalty of Rs. 250 per day (up to Rs. 25,000 total) on a PIO who wrongly refused, delayed, gave false information, or destroyed information. The CIC can also recommend discipl… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Practical Application — Banking and Debt Recovery Using RTI in Banking and NPA Matters HIGH Borrowers and their lawyers use RTI as a powerful information-gathering tool in SARFAESI and DRT proceedings. Information obtained through RTI can be used to challenge NPA classification, contest prop… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 18 Powers and Functions of the Information Commissions MEDIUM The Central Information Commission (CIC) and State Information Commissions (SICs) receive and investigate complaints about RTI refusals, delays, false information, and failure to appoint PIOs. They fu… ▾
RTI Act 2005 Section 9 Grounds for Rejection MEDIUM In addition to Section 8 exemptions, information can be refused if providing it would infringe a copyright owned by a private person. This is a narrow additional ground — most bank documents (loan for… ▾
Glossary Acceleration Clause BANKING A loan agreement provision that makes the entire outstanding loan balance immediately due and payable upon the occurrence of a specified event — typically default. Upon acceleration, the creditor does… ▾
Glossary Acknowledgement of Debt DEBT RECOVERY A written or oral admission by the borrower that the debt exists. Under Section 18 of the Limitation Act, 1963, a fresh acknowledgement before a court or in writing signed by the debtor extends the li… ▾
Glossary Ad Valorem CIVIL PROCEDURE Latin for "according to value." Court fees in DRT and civil court proceedings are typically calculated ad valorem — as a percentage of the amount claimed. Under the Court Fees Act, 1870, and respectiv… ▾
Glossary Adjudicating Authority INSOLVENCY Under the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016, the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) is the Adjudicating Authority for corporate persons. It admits or rejects CIRP petitions, approves resolution p… ▾
Glossary Affidavit CIVIL PROCEDURE A written statement made under oath or solemn affirmation, used as evidence in court proceedings. In DRT proceedings, the evidence is primarily adduced through affidavits-in-chief, with cross-examinat… ▾
Glossary Alienation PROPERTY LAW The transfer of ownership of property from one person to another by sale, gift, mortgage, or other means. In the context of debt recovery, alienation of property by a borrower after default (to defeat… ▾
Glossary ARC (Asset Reconstruction Company) BANKING A company registered with the Reserve Bank of India under the SARFAESI Act, 2002, that acquires Non-Performing Assets from banks at a discount and attempts to recover value from them through enforceme… ▾
Glossary Attachment CIVIL PROCEDURE A court order restraining a judgment debtor from transferring, disposing, or encumbering property. Under the DRT regime, an interim attachment may be sought at the time of filing an Original Applicati… ▾
Glossary Bad Debt BANKING A loan or receivable that is unlikely to be recovered and is written off as a loss by the creditor. Under the Income Tax Act, banks can claim deduction for bad debts written off in their accounts. Und… ▾
Glossary Bailment BANKING The delivery of goods by one person to another for a specific purpose, with a condition to return them. In banking, hypothecation and pledge involve bailment-like relationships. Under a pledge, goods … ▾
Glossary Balance Confirmation BANKING A statement from the bank to the borrower confirming the outstanding loan balance as of a particular date. An acknowledgment by the borrower of the balance constitutes an Acknowledgement of Debt under… ▾
Glossary Bank Guarantee BANKING A written commitment by a bank (guarantor bank) to pay a specified sum to the beneficiary if the principal debtor (on whose behalf the guarantee is issued) fails to fulfill their obligation. Bank guar… ▾
Glossary Benami Transaction PROPERTY LAW A transaction in which property is held by one person but the real beneficial owner is another — typically used to conceal assets from creditors or tax authorities. The Benami Transactions (Prohibitio… ▾
Glossary Borrower BANKING Under SARFAESI, a person or entity that has obtained credit facilities from a secured creditor and against whom a security interest has been created. Includes guarantors in respect of the secured debt… ▾
Glossary Cession of Property INSOLVENCY In personal insolvency under the IBC or the Presidency Towns Insolvency Act/Provincial Insolvency Act, the insolvent's estate (all property) vests in the Resolution Professional or Official Assignee. … ▾
Glossary Caveat CIVIL PROCEDURE A caveat (Latin: "beware") is a formal notice filed in court by a party warning the court not to pass any order without giving that party an opportunity to be heard. Under Section 148-A of the CPC, a … ▾
Glossary Charge BANKING A security interest created on immovable property or other assets as collateral for a loan. A registered charge on assets gives the creditor a right to have the assets sold to satisfy the outstanding … ▾
Glossary Charge Sheet CRIMINAL LAW The formal document filed by police (also called a "challan" or police report under Section 173 CrPC / Section 230 BNSS) after completing investigation of a cognisable offence. The charge sheet sets o… ▾
Glossary CIRP (Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process) INSOLVENCY The time-bound insolvency resolution process under the IBC triggered when a Corporate Debtor defaults on a financial or operational debt of ₹1 crore or more. The CIRP must be completed within 180 days… ▾
Glossary CMM / DM (Chief Metropolitan Magistrate / District Magistrate) DEBT RECOVERY Under Section 14 of the SARFAESI Act, a secured creditor may apply to the CMM (in metropolitan areas) or DM (in non-metropolitan areas) to obtain physical possession of a secured asset. The CMM/DM mus… ▾
Glossary CoC (Committee of Creditors) INSOLVENCY The governing body of financial creditors constituted during CIRP under the IBC. The CoC has commercial decision-making authority over the resolution process, including approval of the Resolution Plan… ▾
Glossary Collateral Security BANKING Additional security provided to a lender besides the primary security. In banking, collateral often includes personal guarantees of directors/promoters, fixed deposits, insurance policies, or addition… ▾
Glossary Compoundable Offence CRIMINAL LAW An offence that can be settled between the accused and the victim/complainant, with court permission. NI Act Section 138 (cheque bounce) is a compoundable offence — the drawer and payee can settle the… ▾
Glossary Consent Decree CIVIL PROCEDURE A court decree passed with the consent of both parties — typically as part of an out-of-court settlement ratified by the court. In debt recovery, banks and borrowers sometimes agree to a One-Time Sett… ▾
Glossary Contempt of Court CIVIL PROCEDURE Wilful disobedience of a court order, or conduct that scandalises or interferes with the administration of justice. In debt recovery, contempt petitions are filed when borrowers refuse to comply with … ▾
Glossary Deed of Hypothecation BANKING A security document in which a borrower creates a charge over movable assets (stock, plant, machinery, book debts) in favour of the lending bank, without transferring possession to the bank. The borro… ▾
Glossary Default BANKING Failure to repay loan installments or interest as per the repayment schedule. Under SARFAESI, default triggers the NPA classification process. For SARFAESI enforcement, a "default" means failure to di… ▾
Glossary Deficiency DEBT RECOVERY The shortfall between the amount recovered by a secured creditor after enforcement (sale of secured assets) and the total outstanding debt. If the sale proceeds are less than the outstanding loan, the… ▾
Glossary Discharge CRIMINAL LAW An order by a court discharging an accused person from the charge against them, before or during trial, when the court finds insufficient grounds to proceed. Distinguished from acquittal: an acquittal… ▾
Glossary DRAT (Debt Recovery Appellate Tribunal) DEBT RECOVERY The appellate forum for orders passed by the Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT). An appeal to DRAT must be filed within 30 days of the DRT order. A pre-deposit of 50% of the debt amount is mandatory for bor… ▾
Glossary DRT (Debt Recovery Tribunal) DEBT RECOVERY A specialised quasi-judicial tribunal established under the Recovery of Debts and Bankruptcy Act, 1993 (RDDB Act) for the adjudication of claims by banks and financial institutions for recovery of deb… ▾
Glossary E-Auction DEBT RECOVERY An online public auction conducted through a designated e-auction platform for the sale of secured assets seized under SARFAESI or by the DRT Recovery Officer. RBI guidelines mandate that banks conduc… ▾
Glossary Encumbrance PROPERTY LAW Any charge, lien, mortgage, or claim on property that affects its free and clear title. Before a bank creates a mortgage, it verifies the title to ensure there are no prior encumbrances. An Encumbranc… ▾
Glossary Equitable Mortgage BANKING Also called "mortgage by deposit of title deeds" under Section 58(f) of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882. Created by depositing original title deeds of property with a bank in a notified town, with … ▾
Glossary Execution of Decree DEBT RECOVERY The process of enforcing a court decree by attaching and selling the judgment debtor's assets. Under the DRT Act, the Recovery Officer executes the Recovery Certificate by attaching and selling the bo… ▾
Glossary Financial Creditor INSOLVENCY Under the IBC, a person to whom a "financial debt" (money borrowed with interest) is owed by the corporate debtor. Banks, NBFCs, bondholders, and debenture holders are financial creditors. Financial c… ▾
Glossary Financial Debt INSOLVENCY A debt along with interest disbursed against the consideration for the time value of money. Includes money borrowed against payment of interest, bonds and debentures, hire purchase and finance lease, … ▾
Glossary Floating Charge BANKING A charge over a company's fluctuating assets (stocks, receivables, cash) that "floats" over the assets until it "crystallises" upon default, at which point it attaches to the specific assets then in e… ▾
Glossary Foreclosure BANKING The legal process by which a mortgagee (lender) acquires clear title to mortgaged property upon the mortgagor's (borrower's) default, extinguishing the borrower's right to redeem. Under the Transfer o… ▾
Glossary Forensic Audit BANKING An examination of financial records with the specific purpose of detecting fraud, misrepresentation, or financial crime. RBI guidelines require banks to conduct forensic audits in all cases where frau… ▾
Glossary Fugitive Economic Offender CRIMINAL LAW A person who has left India or refuses to return to India to face criminal prosecution for an economic offence involving ₹100 crore or more, and has been declared a "Fugitive Economic Offender" by a S… ▾
Glossary Garnishee Order CIVIL PROCEDURE A court order directing a third party (the "garnishee") who owes money to the judgment debtor to pay that money directly to the decree holder instead. Under Order XXI Rule 46 CPC, a bank where the jud… ▾
Glossary Guarantor BANKING A person who gives a guarantee to repay a debt if the principal borrower defaults. In banking, personal guarantees of directors and promoters are typically required for corporate loans. Under SARFAESI… ▾
Glossary Home Buyer (as Financial Creditor) INSOLVENCY Following the Supreme Court's decision in Pioneer Urban Land & Infrastructure Ltd v. Union of India (2019), home buyers (allottees) in real estate projects are classified as financial creditors under … ▾
Glossary Hypothecation BANKING A charge created on movable assets (machinery, vehicles, stock, receivables) as security for a loan, without transfer of possession to the lender. The borrower retains physical possession and use of t… ▾
Glossary IBC (Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code, 2016) INSOLVENCY India's comprehensive insolvency legislation that consolidates and amends laws relating to reorganisation and insolvency resolution of corporate persons, partnership firms, and individuals. Provides t… ▾
Glossary Interim Moratorium INSOLVENCY In personal insolvency proceedings under Part III of the IBC, an automatic moratorium comes into effect from the date an application is filed against an individual or partnership. This protects the de… ▾
Glossary Interim Resolution Professional (IRP) INSOLVENCY The insolvency professional appointed by the NCLT when it admits a CIRP petition under the IBC. The IRP serves during the initial 30-day period before the Committee of Creditors appoints a Resolution … ▾
Glossary IRP (Insolvency Resolution Professional) INSOLVENCY An insolvency professional appointed by the NCLT upon admission of a CIRP petition to manage the corporate debtor's affairs during the resolution process. The IRP constitutes the Committee of Creditor… ▾
Glossary Injunction CIVIL PROCEDURE A court order restraining a party from doing a particular act (prohibitory injunction) or compelling a party to do a specific act (mandatory injunction). In debt recovery disputes, borrowers often see… ▾
Glossary Joint and Several Liability BANKING A legal arrangement where multiple borrowers or guarantors are each individually responsible for the entire debt. If two persons are jointly and severally liable, the creditor can recover the full amo… ▾
Glossary Know Your Customer (KYC) BANKING The process by which banks verify the identity and background of their customers before providing financial services. Mandated by RBI guidelines under the Prevention of Money Laundering (Maintenance o… ▾
Glossary Letter of Credit (LC) BANKING A bank instrument guaranteeing payment to a seller upon presentation of specified documents (invoice, bill of lading, insurance). If the buyer (applicant) defaults, the issuing bank pays the seller. L… ▾
Glossary Lien BANKING The right of a creditor to retain possession of a debtor's property until a debt is paid. A banker's lien (under Section 171 of the Indian Contract Act) is a general lien — it allows a bank to retain … ▾
Glossary Limitation Period CIVIL PROCEDURE The time period within which a legal action must be commenced. Under the Limitation Act, 1963, civil suits for money recovery must be filed within 3 years of the cause of action. DRT Original Applicat… ▾
Glossary Liquidation INSOLVENCY The process of winding up a company's affairs by selling assets and distributing proceeds to creditors. Under the IBC, liquidation is triggered when the NCLT rejects a resolution plan, the CoC decides… ▾
Glossary Money Decree DEBT RECOVERY A court decree ordering payment of a specific sum of money by the judgment debtor to the decree holder. In debt recovery, a money decree from a DRT can be executed by the Recovery Officer. A money dec… ▾
Glossary Moratorium INSOLVENCY Under Section 14 of the IBC, upon admission of a CIRP petition, an automatic moratorium is imposed. During moratorium, no suits, proceedings, or enforcement actions (including SARFAESI proceedings) ca… ▾
Glossary Mortgage BANKING A transfer of interest in immovable property as security for the repayment of money. The Transfer of Property Act recognises six types: simple, mortgage by conditional sale, usufructuary, English, mor… ▾
Glossary NBFC (Non-Banking Financial Company) BANKING A company registered under the Companies Act and regulated by the RBI under the RBI Act, 1934, that provides financial services (loans, leases, investments) but is not a bank. NBFCs with assets ₹100 c… ▾
Glossary Non-Performing Asset (NPA) BANKING A loan or advance where interest or principal payment has been overdue for more than 90 days. NPAs are classified as Sub-Standard (up to 12 months NPA), Doubtful (12–36 months), or Loss Assets (recove… ▾
Glossary Notice Under Section 13(2) SARFAESI DEBT RECOVERY The mandatory 60-day demand notice that a secured creditor must issue to the borrower before initiating enforcement action under SARFAESI. The notice demands repayment of the outstanding secured debt … ▾
Glossary NPA (Non-Performing Asset) BANKING A loan or advance where: (i) interest and/or instalment of principal remains overdue for more than 90 days in respect of a term loan; (ii) the account remains "out of order" for more than 90 days in r… ▾
Glossary Operational Creditor INSOLVENCY Under the IBC, a person to whom an "operational debt" (arising from supply of goods, services, employment, or government dues) is owed. Operational creditors can trigger CIRP by filing under Section 9… ▾
Glossary Objection Petition DEBT RECOVERY A petition filed before the DRT Recovery Officer under Section 30 of the RDDB Act challenging the execution proceedings. A borrower may file an objection if the attachment or sale is improper, the pro… ▾
Glossary One-Time Settlement (OTS) BANKING A negotiated settlement between a bank and a defaulting borrower where the bank agrees to accept less than the full outstanding dues in final settlement of the loan account. OTS is governed by each ba… ▾
Glossary Original Application (OA) DEBT RECOVERY The initial application filed by a bank or financial institution before the Debt Recovery Tribunal seeking recovery of debts above ₹20 lakhs. The DRT adjudicates the OA and if satisfied, issues a Reco… ▾
Glossary PMLA (Prevention of Money Laundering Act) CRIMINAL LAW The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 — the primary anti-money laundering legislation in India, enforced by the Enforcement Directorate (ED). The ED can attach properties that are "proceeds of … ▾
Glossary Personal Guarantee BANKING A guarantee provided by an individual (typically a director or promoter) to repay a borrower company's loan obligations. Upon company default, the bank can proceed against the guarantor's personal ass… ▾
Glossary Pledge BANKING The delivery of movable goods (shares, FDRs, gold, commodities) by a borrower (pledgor) to a lender (pledgee) as security, retaining ownership but giving possession to the lender. Upon default, the pl… ▾
Glossary Proforma Account BANKING In DRT proceedings, when the borrower's loan is the primary account, related accounts or guarantors may be added as "proforma" parties for the purpose of the recovery proceedings. Proforma defendants … ▾
Glossary Promissory Note BANKING A written unconditional promise by one person (the maker) to pay a certain sum of money to another person (the payee) at a specified future date or on demand. Promissory notes are "negotiable instrume… ▾
Glossary RDDB Act (Recovery of Debts and Bankruptcy Act) DEBT RECOVERY The Recovery of Debts Due to Banks and Financial Institutions Act, 1993 (renamed in 2016 to include "Bankruptcy"), which established the Debt Recovery Tribunals (DRTs) and Debt Recovery Appellate Trib… ▾
Glossary Receiver CIVIL PROCEDURE A court-appointed officer who takes possession and management of property under dispute or subject to a decree. Under Order XL CPC, courts can appoint a receiver to manage and preserve a disputed prop… ▾
Glossary Recovery Certificate (RC) DEBT RECOVERY An order issued by the DRT Presiding Officer in favour of a bank or financial institution directing recovery of the debt as certified. The RC has the effect of a decree of a civil court and is execute… ▾
Glossary Redemption PROPERTY LAW The right of a mortgagor (borrower) to recover mortgaged property by repaying the outstanding debt. Under Section 60 of the Transfer of Property Act, 1882, the mortgagor's right to redeem is a fundame… ▾
Glossary Registered Mortgage BANKING A mortgage created by a registered deed under the Registration Act, 1908. A simple mortgage (Section 58(b) TPA) requires registration. Upon default under a registered mortgage, the mortgagee files a m… ▾
Glossary Reserve Price DEBT RECOVERY The minimum price set for the auction sale of secured assets by a secured creditor under SARFAESI or by the Recovery Officer under the DRT. The reserve price must be fixed based on a valuation report.… ▾
Glossary Resolution Plan INSOLVENCY A plan proposed by a Resolution Applicant (potential acquirer) to resolve the Corporate Debtor's insolvency under the IBC. The plan must be approved by the Committee of Creditors with 66% vote and the… ▾
Glossary Section 138 NI Act CRIMINAL LAW The provision under the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881 that criminalises dishonour of a cheque for insufficiency of funds or if the amount exceeds the arrangement. Punishment: imprisonment up to 2 y… ▾
Glossary SARFAESI DEBT RECOVERY The Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002. Allows secured creditors (banks, NBFCs, HFCs) to enforce security interests — take possession … ▾
Glossary SARFAESI (Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets) DEBT RECOVERY The Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Security Interest Act, 2002. The primary legislation enabling banks and NBFCs to enforce security interests without court i… ▾
Glossary Secured Creditor BANKING A creditor holding a security interest over the assets of the borrower. Under SARFAESI, "secured creditor" means any bank or financial institution (including qualifying NBFCs and HFCs) that has securi… ▾
Glossary Security Interest BANKING A right, title, or interest of any kind upon property created in favour of a secured creditor as a security for repayment of any financial assistance. Includes mortgage, charge, hypothecation, assignm… ▾
Glossary Set-Off CIVIL PROCEDURE A defendant's counterclaim against the plaintiff for a debt or damages, which the court may allow to reduce or extinguish the plaintiff's claim. In DRT proceedings, borrowers sometimes plead set-off o… ▾
Glossary Stamp Duty PROPERTY LAW A state-level tax on legal documents including mortgage deeds, sale deeds, and loan agreements, payable under the Indian Stamp Act, 1899 or respective State Stamp Acts. An unstamped or inadequately st… ▾
Glossary Subrogation BANKING The substitution of one creditor for another, allowing the substituted creditor to take over the original creditor's rights against the debtor. In banking, when an ARC purchases NPAs from a bank, it i… ▾
Glossary Technical Write-Off BANKING A specific type of write-off where a bank removes an NPA from its books at the branch level (for balance sheet presentation) but retains the legal right to recover the debt, which is tracked off-balan… ▾
Glossary Title Deed BANKING A legal document evidencing ownership of immovable property. In equitable mortgages, the borrower deposits the original title deeds with the bank, which creates the security interest. On SARFAESI enfo… ▾
Glossary Title Search PROPERTY LAW An examination of property records (at the Sub-Registrar's office and other government databases) to verify: (i) clear and marketable title; (ii) absence of prior encumbrances; (iii) validity of the s… ▾
Glossary Trust Receipt BANKING A document used in trade finance (particularly for LCs) where the bank releases documents of title to the borrower to take delivery of goods, subject to the borrower holding the goods or their proceed… ▾
Glossary Undertrial CRIMINAL LAW A person who has been accused of an offence and is in custody pending trial. Section 479 of the BNSS (erstwhile Section 436A of CrPC) provides for bail to undertrials who have served half the maximum … ▾
Glossary Unsecured Creditor INSOLVENCY A creditor who does not hold any security interest over the debtor's assets. In the priority waterfall under SARFAESI/IBC, unsecured creditors rank after secured creditors. Under the IBC liquidation w… ▾
Glossary Valuation DEBT RECOVERY The process of determining the fair market value or forced sale value of a secured asset before SARFAESI enforcement. RBI guidelines require banks to obtain valuations from empanelled valuers before i… ▾
Glossary Winding Up INSOLVENCY The process of closing down a company by liquidating its assets, paying off creditors, and distributing the surplus (if any) to shareholders. Under the Companies Act, 2013 (Sections 270–375), courts c… ▾
Glossary Writ Jurisdiction CONSTITUTIONAL The power of the Supreme Court (Article 32) and High Courts (Article 226) to issue writs — including habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari. In debt recovery, the Supreme C… ▾
Glossary Write-Off BANKING The accounting process by which a bank removes an NPA from its books by treating it as a loss. A write-off does not mean the bank has waived the debt — it is purely an accounting entry. The bank conti… ▾
Glossary Wilful Defaulter BANKING A borrower classified by a bank as having the ability to repay but deliberately not doing so, or having diverted/siphoned off funds. RBI's Master Circular on Wilful Defaulters prescribes strict conseq… ▾
Glossary XBRL Filing BANKING eXtensible Business Reporting Language — the electronic format mandated by the RBI and MCA for submission of financial data by banks and listed companies. In debt recovery proceedings, XBRL-filed fina… ▾
Glossary Zero FIR CRIMINAL LAW An FIR registered at a police station that does not have territorial jurisdiction over the offence, which must then be transferred to the appropriate police station. Introduced by the BNSS 2023 (Secti… ▾